Explain how age relates to the distribution of resources, power and privilege.

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Review, Check, and Apply Review

LO 1.1 Describe the scope of the field of lifespan devel- opment.

Lifespan development is a scientific approach’to under- standing human growth and change throughout life. The field covers a broad range of ages and topical areas. Its chief aim is to examine the links between human age groups and the areas of physical, cognitive, social, and personality development.

LO 1.2 Describe cohorts, and explain how they influ- ence development.

Membership in a cohort, based on age and place of birth, subjects people to influences based on historical events (history-graded influences). People are also subject to age- graded influences, sociocultural-graded influences, and non-normative life events.

LO 1.3 Explain the differences between continuous change and discontinuous change.

In continuous change, development is gradual, with achievements at one level building on those of previous levels. Continuous change is quantitative; the underlying developmental processes remain the same over the life span. In contrast, in discontinuous change, development occurs in distinct stages. Each stage brings about behavior

that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at previous stages.

LO 1,4 Distinguish between critical periods and sensi- tive periods.

A critical period is a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences. In a sensitive period, organisms are particularly suscep- tible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments. In contrast to a critical period, however, the absence of those stimuli during a sensitive period does not always produce irreversible consequences.

LO 1.5 Describe how the study of lifespan development expanded.

Early developmentalists tended to focus their attention on infancy and adolescence, largely to the exclusion of other parts of the life span. Today, however, devel- opmentalists believe the entire life span is important, largely because developmental growth and change con- tinue during every part of life.

LO 1,6 Summarize the influence of nature and nurture on development.

Nature refers to traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from one’s parents. In contrast, nurture refers to the environmental influences that shape behavior.

Check Yourself L. Three assumptions made by lifespan developmentalists

are: (1″) a focus on human development, (2) an under- standing of stability in addition to growth and change, and (3)

a. the perception that development persists through- out our enfue lives

b. the perception that childhood developmental changes are the only changes worth studying

c. the idea that some periods of the life span are more important than others

d. the perception that development is a stagnant Process

2. The time when children utter their first complete sen- tence is an example of a. a history-graded influence b. an age-graded influence c. a sociocultural-graded influence d. a non-normative life event

Grady believes that human development occurs in small, measurable amounts. His sister Andrea disa- grees and suggests that human development is more distinct and steplike. Their argument is most reflective of the _ issue. a. critical and sensitive period b. nafure and nurfure c. continuous and discontinuous d. lifespan approach and particular period A _ is a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequence. a. critical period b. sensitive period c. genetic period d. embryo period

3.

4.

Applying Lifespan Development What are some examples of the ways culture (either broad culture or aspects of culture) affects human development?

lntroduction 23

For example, a developmentalist using the psychodynamic approach might con- sider how theg/\1. terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon might affect children, unconsciously, for their entire life span. A cognitive approach might focus on how children perceived and came to interpret and understand terrorism, whereas a contextual approach might consider what personality and social factors led the perpetrators to adopt terrorist tactics.

Clearly, each perspective is based on its own premises and focuses on differ- ent aspects of development. Furthermore, the same developmental phenomenon can be looked at from a number of perspectives simultaneously. Lr fact, some lifes- pan developmentalists use an eclectic approacfu drawing on several perspectives simultaneously.

In the same way, the various theoretical perspectives provide different ways of looking at development. Considering them together paints a fuller portrait of the myr- iad ways human beings change and grow over the course of their lives. However, not all theories and claims derived from the various perspectives are accurate. How do we choose among competing explanations? The answer can be found through research, which we consider in the final part of this chapter.

i

Review, Check, and Apply Review

LO 1.7 Describe the fundamentals of the psychodynamic perspective.

The psychodlmamic perspective suggests that behav- ior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people’s awareness and con- irol. It focuses on unconscious determinants of behavior. According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, personality has three aspects: id, ego, and superego. In contrast, Erikson’s psychosocial approach emphasizes our social interaction with others. He suggests that society and culture both chal- lenge and shape us.

LO 1.8 Describe the fundamentals of the behavioral perspective.

The behavioral perspective suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and environmental stimuli. If we know the stimuli, we can predict the behavior. Behavioral theories reject the notion that people universally pass through a series of stages. Instead, people are affected by the environmental stimuli to which they happen to be exposed.

LO 1.9 Describe the fundamentals of the cognitive per- spective.

Piaget proposed that all people pass through a fixed sequence of universal stages of cognitive development- and not only does the quantity of information increase in each stage, but also the quality of knowledge and under- standing changes. His focus was on the change in cogni- tion that occurs as children move from one stage to the next. Broadly speaking, Piaget suggested that human thinking is arranged into schemes, which are organized mental patterns that represent behaviors and actions.

LO 1.10 Describe the fundamentals of the humanistic perspective.

Despite its emphasis on important and unique human qualities, the humanistic perspective has not had a major impact on the field of lifespan development. This is pri- marily because of its inability to identify any sort of broad developmental change that is the result of increas- ing age or experience. Still, some of the concepts drawn from the humanistic perspective, such as self-actualiza- tion, have helped describe important aspects of human behavior and are widely discussed in areas ranging from health care to business.

LO 1.11 Describe the fundamentals of the contextual perspective.

The contextual perspective considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds. It suggests that a per- son’s unique development cannot be properly viewed without seeing how that person is enmeshed within a rich social and cultural context. Two maior theo- ries that fall under this category are Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach and Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory.

LO 1.12 Describe the fundamentals of the evolutionary perspective.

In 1859, Darwin argued in On the Origin of Species that a process of natural selection creates traits in a species that are adaptive to its environment. Using Darwin’s argu- ments, evolutionary approaches contend that our genetic inheritance not only determines such physical traits as skin and eye color, but also certain personality traits and social behaviors. For instance, some evolutionary devel- opmentalists suggest that behaviors such as shyness and

L

24 Chapterl

jealousy are produced in part by genetic causes, presum- ably because they helped in increasing survival rates of humans’ ancient relatives.

LO 1.13 Explain the value of using multipte perspec- tives to describe human development.

Each perspective emphasizes different aspects of devel- opment. For instance, the psychodynamic approach emphasizes unconscious determinants of behavior, whereas behavioral perspectives emphasize overt

Check Yourself 1. — are organized explanations and predictions

concerning phenomena of interest and provide frame_ works for understanding the relationships across vari- ables.

a. Evaluations b. Constitutions c. Intuitions d. Theories

2. The perspective suggests that the key to understanding one’s actions involves observation of those actions and the outside stimuli in the environ- ment.

a. psychodyramic b. cognitive c. behavioral d. operant conditioning

Applying Lifespan Development What examples of human behavior have you seen that seem to have been inherited from our ancestors because they helped individuals survive and adapt more effectively? \Atrhy do you think they are inherited?

Module 1.3 Research Methods The Greek historian Herodotus wrote of an experiment conducted by Psamtik, the King of Egypt in the seventh century a.c. psamtik was eager to prove the cherished Egyptian belief that his peopte were the oldest race on earth. Io fest fhrs notion, he developed a hypothesis: lf a child was never exposed to the language of his elders, he would instinctively adopt the primal language of humanity, the oiginal language o the first peopte. psamtik was certain this woutd be Egyptian.

For his experiment, Psamtik entrusted two Egyptian infants to the care of a herdsman in an isotated xea. They were to be well looked after but not allowed to leave their cottage. And they were never to hear anyone speak a single word.

When Herodotus investigated the story, the prbsfs of Hephaestus in Memphis told him that psamtik,s quest ,,was to know, after the indistinct babblings of infancy were over, what

behavior. The cognitive and humanistic perspectives look more at what people think ttran at what they do. The contextual perspective examines social and cul- tural influences on development, and the evolutionary perspective focuses on how inherited biological factors underlie development. Clearly, each perspective is based on its own premises and focuses on different aspects of development. Furthermore, the same developmental phenomenon can be looked at from a number of perspec- tives simultaneously.

3. Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach and Vygot- sky’s sociocultural theory fall under the category ofthe .- Perspective. a. humanistic b. ethnological c. contextual d. evolutionary

4. The researcher most closely associated with the evolu- tionary perspective is _. a. Konrad Lorenz b. JeanPiaget c. CarlRogers d. B. F. Skinner

word [the children] would first articulate,,’ Herodotus ctaims the experiment worked but not as psamtik had hoped. One day, when the children were 2 years old, they greeted the herdsman with the word “Becos!” The herdsman didn’t know this word but when the children continued to use it, he contacted psamtik. The king sent for the children who repeated the strange word to him. Psamtik did some research. Becos, it evolved, was ,’bread’, in Phrygian. Psamtik had to conclude the phrygians had preceded the Egyptians.

With the perspective of several thousand years, we can easily see the shortcomings-both scientific and ethical_in psamtik,s approach. Yet his procedure represents an improvement over mere speculation, and as such is sometimes looked on as the first developmental experiment in recorded history fiunt, 1993).

36 Chapter 1

Yet in some cultures, infants spend most of their time closely bound to their mothers-with no apparent long- term damage (Kaplan & Dove, 1987; Tronick, 1995).

o Don’t assume that because many people believe something, it as necessarily true. Scientific evaluation has often proved that some of the most basic presumptions about the effectiveness of vari- ous techniques are invalid.

ln short, the key to evaluating information relating to human development is to maintain a healthy dose of skepticism. No source of information is invariably, unfailingly accurate. By keeping a critical eye on the statements you encounter, you’ll be in a better position to determine the real contributions made by developmentalists to understanding how humans develop over the course of the life span.

Review, Check, and Apply Review

LO 1.14 Explain the role theories and hypothesis play in the study of development.

Theories are systematically derived explanations of facts or phenomena. Theories suggest hypotheses, which are predictions that can be tested.

LO 1.15 Contrast correlational and experimental research. Correlational research seeks to identify whether an associa- tion or relationship between two factors exists. Experimental research is designed to discover causal relationships between various factors. In experimental research, researchers delib- erately introduce a change in a carefully structured situation to see the consequences of that change.

LO 1.16 Explain the types of studies and methods used in correlational research.

Correlational studies examine the relationship, or correla- tion, between two factors without demonstrating causality. Correlational methods include naturalistic obsewation, ethnography, case studies, survey research, and psycho, physiological methods.

LO 1.17 Analyze how experiments can be used to deter- mine cause and effect.

In an experiment, an investigator or experimenter typically devises two different conditions (or treatments) and then

Check Yourself 1. To make a prediction in such a way that permits it to be

tested, one must make a(n)

a. theory b. hypothesis c. analysis d. judgment

2. A researcher stands near an intersection and writes down the time it takes for the lead driver to start up after

compares how the behavior of the participants exposed to each condition is affected. One group, the treatment or experimental group, is exposed to the treatment variable being studied; the other, the control group, is not.

LO 1.18 Explain how theoretical and applied research complement each other.

Theoretical research is designed to test some develop- mental explanation and expand scientific knowledge, whereas applied research is meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems.

LO 1.19 Compare longitudinal research, cross-sectional research, and sequential research.

To measure change across human ages, researchers use longitudinal studies of the same participants over time, cross-sectional studies of different-age participants con- ducted at one time, and sequential studies of different-age particpants at several points in time.

LO 1.20 Describe some ethical issues that affect psycho- logical research.

Ethical issues that affect psychological research include the protection of participants from harm, informed consent of participants, limits on the use of deception, and the maintenance of privacy.

the light turns green. The researcher records the gender and approximate age of the driver. This researcher is most likely engaged in _. a. a case study b. naturalistic observation c. anethnography d. surveyresearch L

58 Chapter2

traits, given the overwhelming influence of the environment on young children. As they get older and their parents’ day-to-day influence declines, genetically influenced traits may begin to manifest themselves as unseen genetic factors begin to play agreater role \ _(Caspi & Moffitt, 1993; Arsenault et a1.,2003; poulton & Caspi,2005).

Can Genes hrfluence the Environment? LO 2.6 Describe ways in which genes influence the environment. According to developmental psychologist sandra scarr (1993, 199g), the genetic endowment provided to children by their parents not only d”etermines their [enetic characteristics but also actively influences their environment. Scarr suggests three ways a child’s genetic predisposition might influence his or her environment.

First, children tend to focus on aspects of their environment that are most in tune with their genetic abilities. For example, an active, aggressive child may gravi- tate toward sports, whereas a reseryed child may be more engaged by academlcs or solitary pursuits such as computer games or drawing. or, one giil reading the school bulletin board may notice the upcoming tryouts for Litfle League basebill, whereas her less coordinated but more musically endowed friend mighispot a poster recruit- ing students for an after-school chorus. In these examples the childrerare attending to those aspects of the environment in which their genetically determined abilitiei can flourish.

Second, the gene-environment influence may be more passive and less direct. For example, a particularly sports-oriented parent, who has genes that promote good physical coordinatiory may provide many opportunities for ichild to piay sportsl

Finally, the genetically driven temperament of a child may eookecertain environ- mental influences. For instance, an infant’s demanding behavior may cause parents to be more attentive to the infant’s needs than they would be otherwise. Or, a child -\ who is genetically well coordinated may play ball with anything in the house so rr often that her parents notice and decide to give her some rportr eq-uipment. \-

In sum, determining whether behavior is primarily attributabie to nature or nurture is like shooting at a moving target. Not only are behaviors and traits a joint outcome of genetic and environmental factors, but the relative influence o{ genesand environment for specific characteristics shifts over the life span. Although the genes we inherit at birth set the stage for our future development, the constantly rniftirrg scenery and the other characters in our lives determine just how our developmen”t eventually plays out. The environment both influences our experiences and is molded by the choices we are temperamentally inclined to make.

Review, Check, and Apply Review

LA 21 Describe how genes and chromosomes provide our basic genetic endowment.

A child receives 23 chromosomes from each parent. These 46 chromosomes provide the genetic blueprint that will guide cell activity for the rest of the individual,slife.

LO 2.2 Explain the mechanisms by which genes transmit information.

A genotype is the underlying combination of genetic mate- rial present in an organism but invisible; a phenotype is the visible trait the expression of the genotype. For example, PKU, a disease that causes brain damage and intellectual disabilities, is produced by a single pair of genes inherited.

from one’s mother and father. If neither parent carries a gene for the disease, a child cannot develop pKU. Even if one parent carries the recessive gene, but the other doesn,! the child cannot inherit the disease. Howevel, if both par- ents carry the recessive gene, there is a one in four chance that the child will have PKU.

LO 2.3 Describe the role of genetic counselors and differentiate between different forms of prenatal testing.

Genetic counselors use a variety of data and techniques to advise future parents of possible genetic risks to their unbom children. A variety of techniques can be used to assess the health of an unbom child if a woman is already pregnant, including ultrasound, CVS, and amniocentesis.

‘”\*

LO 2.4 Explain how the environment and genetics work together to determine human characteristics.

Behavioral characteristics are often determined by a com- bination of genetics and environment. Genetically based traits represent a potential, called the genotype, which may be affected by the environment and is ultimately expressed in the phenotype.

LO 2.5 Explain how genetics and the environment jointly influence physical traits, intelligence, and personality.

Virtually a1l human traits, characteristics, and behaviors are the result of the combination and interaction of nature and

Check Yourself

1. Sex cells (the ova and the sperm) are different from other cells because they:

a. have twice the 46 chromosomes necessary so that when the cells combine and material is “spilled,” the appropriate number of chromosomes will still be there.

b. each has half of the 46 chromosomes so that when they combine, the new zygote will have all the ge- netic information necessary.

c. are younger than all other cells in the developing hu- manbody.

d. are the only cells with chromosomal information.

2. According to Mendel, when competing traits are both present, only one trait, also known as the

–

trait, can be expressed.

a. homozygous b. recessive

The Start of Life 59

nurture. For example, intelligence contains a strong genetic component but can be significantly influenced by environ- mental factors. Some personality traits, including neuroti- cism and extroversion, have been linked to genetic factors, and even attitudes, values, and interests have a genetic component.

LO 2.6 Describe ways in which genes influence the environment.

Children may in-fluence their environment through genetic kaits that cause them to construct-or influence their par- ents to construct-an environment that matches their inher- ited dispositions and preferences.

c. polygenic d. dominant

3. Most behavioral traits are a product of genetic influ- ence and environmental factors. This is also known as

a. systematic desensitization b. creative orientation c. genetic predetermination d. multifactorial transmission

4. According to psychologist ]erome Kagan, differences in temperament between Chinese and American chil- dren suggest a culture’s philosophical outlook may be related to

–

factors.

a. environmental b. genetic c. cultural d. social

Applying Lifespan Development How might an environment different from the one you experienced have affected the development of personality charac-

teristics that you believe you inherited from one or both of your parents?

Module 2.2 Prenatal Growth and Change

Jill and Casey Adams own a small New York advertising firm. When Jill found out she was pregnant, the couple knew they’d need to make radical changes in their lifestyle’ Donut breakfasts

and fast-food lunches would have to give way to healthier meals

with tots of protein and veggies. Gone too were late night parties

and ctubbing with clients, “No alcohol,” their midwife stressed. They would also need to give up smoking. Near her due date

‘ ,.now, Jill says the changes were tough but good’ ‘And we use our new lifestyle to connect with health-consclous companies. lnstead of clubbing until dawn with clients, we now go iogging at dawn with them.”

From the moment of conception, development proceeds relentlessly.

Much of it is guided by the complex set of genetic guidelines inherited from the parents, but much is also influenced from the start by environmental factors (Leavitt & Goldson, 1996), And both

parents, like Jill and Casey Adams, will have the chance to provide a

good prenatal environment. ln this module, we trace the first stirrings of life, when the father’s

sperm meets the mother’s egg. We consider the stages of prenatal

development, as the fertilized egg rapidly grows and differentiates into

the vast variety of cells that make up the human body. We also look

at how pregnancy can go awry and conclude with a discussion of the

factors that present threats to normal development.

Becoming an lnformed Consumer of Development Optimizing the Prenatal Environment lf you are contemplating ever having a child, you may be overwhelmed, at this point in the chapter, by the number of things that can go wrong. Don’t be. Although both genetics and the environment pose their share of risks, in the vast majority of cases, pregnancy and birth proceed without mishap. Moreover, there are several things that women can do-both before and during pregnancy-to optimize the probability that pregnancy will progress smoothly (Massaro, Rothbaum, & Aly, 2006). Among them:

. For women who are planning to become pregnant, several precautions are in order. First, schedule any necessary nonemergency X-rays only during the first 2 weeks after your menstrual periods. Second, be sure you are vaccinated against rubella (German measles) at least 3, and preferably 6, months before getting preg- nant. Finally, discontlnue birth control pills, which disrupt hormone production, at least 3 months before trying to conceive.

r Eat well before and during pregnancy. As the say- ing goes, pregnant mothers are eating for two. lt is more essential than ever to eat regular, well-balanced meals. ln addition, take prenatal vitamins, including folic acid, which can decrease the likelihood of birth defects (Amitai et al., 2OO4).

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Don’t use alcohol or other drugs. The evidence is clear that many drugs pass directly to the fetus and may cause birth defects. lt is also clear that the more one drinks, the greater the risk to the fetus. The best advice: Don’t use any drug unless directed by a physician. lf you are plan- ning to get pregnant, encourage your paftner to avoid us- ing alcohol or other drugs too (O’Connor & Whaley, 2006).

Monitor caffeine intake. Although it is not clear that caffeine produces birth defects, it is known that the caffeine in coffee, tea, and chocolate can pass to the fetus, acting as a stimulant. Because of this, you prob- ably shouldn’t drink more than a few cups of coffee a day (Wisborg et al., 2003; Diego et al.,20Al.

Whether pregnant or not, don,t smoke. This holds true for mothers, fathers, and anyone else in the vicinity of the pregnant mother because research suggests that smoke in the fetal environment can affect birthweight.

Exercise regularly. ln most cases, pregnant women can continue with low-impact exercise but should avoid extreme exercise, especially on very hot or cold days. “No pain, no gain” isn’t applicable during pregnancy (O’Toole, Sawicki, & Artal, 2003; Paisley, Joy, & Price, 2003; Schmidt et al., 2006; DiNallo, Downs, & Le Masurier,2012).

From the perspective of a healthcare provider: ln addition to avoiding smoking, what other sorts of things might fathers-to-be do to help their unborn children develop normally in the womb?

Review, Check, and Apply Review LO 2.7 Explain the process of fertilization and the three

stages of development.

\Alhen sperm enter the vagina, they begin a journey that takes them through the cervix, the opening into the uterus, and into the fallopian tube, where fertilization may take place.Iertilization joins the sperm and ovum to startprenataldevETlopmiint.r,flhegerminalstage(f ertiliza- tion to 2 weeks) is marked by rapid cell division and spe- cialization, and the attachment of the zygote to the wall of the uterus. During the embryonic stage (2 to 8 weeks), the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm begin to grow and specialize. The fetal stage (8 weeks to birth) is characterized by a rapid increase in complexity and dif- ferentiation of the organs. The fetus becomes active, and most of its systems become operational.

LO 2.8 Describe some of the physical and ethical chal- lenges that relate to pregnancy.

Some couples need medical aid to help them conceive. Among the alternate routes to conception are artificial insemination and in vitro fertilization (IVF). Some women may also experience miscarriage or opt for an abortion.

LO 2.9 Describe the threats to the fetal environment and what can be done about them.

A teratogen is an environmental agent such as a drug, chem- ical, virus, or other factor that produces a birth defect. Fac- tors in the mother that may affect the unbom child include diet, age, illnesses, and drug, alcohof and tobacco use. The behaviors of fathers and others in the environment may also affect the health and development of the unborn child.

( \,,; d ft.q)-‘ryq’- The Start of Life 91

I

Table 2-6 Wnat Encourages Social lnteraction Between Newborns and Their Parents?

Offer preferred stimuli more than others

Build on their cycles to achieve more regulated states

Conform to and shape the newborn’s patterns

Help newborn grasp what meaning the actions have

Act in predictable, consistent ways

Work to understand their newborn’s communicative effofts

SOUBCE: Based on Eckerman & Oehler, 1992; LeMoine, Mayoral, & Dean, 2015.

The ultimate outcome of the social interactive capabilities of the newborn infant, and the responses from parents, is a paved path for future social interac- tions. In sum, then, neonates display remarkable physical, perceptual, and social capabilities.

From a child-care worker’s perspective: Developmental researchers no longer view the neonate as a helpless, incompetent creature, but rather as a remarkably competent, developing human being. What do you think are some implications of this change in view- point for methods of child rearing and child care?

Review

Show a preference for certain stimuli

Begin to show a predictable cycle of arousal states

Show some consistency in time patterns

Show awareness of parent’s aollons..

React and adapt to actions of parent

Show evidence of a desire to communicate

LO 2.10 Describe the normal process of labor and the events that occur in the first few hours of a newborn’s life.

In the first stage of labor, contractions occur about every 8 to 10 minutes, increasing in frequency, duration, and intensity until the mother’s cervix expands. In the sec- ond stage of labor, which lasts about 90 minutes, the baby begins to move tfuough the cervix and birth canal and ulti- mately leaves the mother’s body. In the third stage of labor, which lasts only a few minutes, the umbilical cord and pla- centa are expelled from the mother. After it emerges, the newborry or neonate, is usually inspected for irregularities, cleaned, and returned to its mother and father. It also under- goes newborn screening tests.

LO 2.11 Describe the major current approaches to child- birth.

Parents-to-be have a variety of choices regarding the setting for the birth, medical attendants, and whether to use pain-reducing medication. Sometimes, medical inter- vention, such as cesarean birth, becomes necessary.

LO 2.12 Describe the causes of, consequences of, and treatments for preterm births and the risks that postmature babies face.

Preterm, or premature, irfants, born less than 38 weeks following conception, generally have low birthweight,

which can cause chilling, vulnerability to infection, respiratory distress s5mdrome, and hypersensitivity to environmental stimuli. They may even show adverse effects later in life, including slowed development, learn- ing disabilities, behavior disorders, below-average IQ scores, and problems with physical coordination. Very-low-birthweight infants are in special danger because of the immaturity of their organ systems. However, medical advances have pushed the age of viability of the infant back to about 24 weeks following conception. Postmature babies, who spend extra time in their mothers’wombs, are also at risk.

LO 2.13 Describe the process of cesarean delivery, and explain the reasons for its increase in use.

Cesarean deliveries are performed when the fetus is in dis- tress, in the wrong positiory or unable to progress through the birth canal. The routine use of a fetal monitor has con- tributed to a soaring rate of cesarean deliveries.

LO 2.14 Explain the factors that lead to stillbirth, infant mortality, and postpartum depression.

The infant mortality rate in the United States is higher than the rate in many other countries, and higher for low-income families than higher-income families. Postpartum depres- sion, an enduring, deep feeling of sadness, affects about 10 percent of new mothers. In severe cases, its effects can be harmful to the mother and the child, and aggressive treat- ment may be employed.

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LO 2.15 Describe the physical capabilities of the newborn.

Human newboms quickly master breathing through the lungs, and they are equipped with reflexes to help them eat, swallow, find food, and avoid unpleasant stimuli.

LO 2.16 Describe the sensory capabilities of the newborn.

Newboms’sensory competence indudes the abiJity to distin- guish objects in the visual field and to see color differences, the abiJity to hear and to discem familiar sounds, and sensitivity to toudl odorg and tastes.

Check Yourself 1. Labor proceeds in three stages. The longest stage of

labor is

a. the first stage b. the second stage c. the third stage d. hard to determine

2. The scale measures inJant health by assessing appearance (color), pulse (heart rate), grimace (reflex irritability), activity (muscle tone), and respiration (res- piratory effort).

a. Bronfenbrenner b. Brazelton c. Anoxia d. Apgar

3. IA/hich of the following factors influence a woman’s delivery?

a. Her preparation for childbirth b. The support she has before and during delivery c. Her culture’s view of pregnancy and delivery d. All of the above

4. The amount of danger facing preterm infants largely depends on the child’s at birth. a. weight b. intelligence

LA 2.17 Describe the leaming capabilities of the newborn.

From birth, infants leam tluough habituation, classical con- \__ ditioning, and operant conditioning.

LO 2.18 Describe the social competencies of newborns.

Infants develop the foundations of social competence early in life. Newborns are able to imitate the behavior of others, a capability that helps them form social relationships and facilitates the development of social competence.

c. eye color d. movements

defined as death within the first year of life, has been declining since the 1960s.

a. Infant decline b. Infant mortality c. Life expectancy d. Age of viability To survive the first few minutes or even days, infants are bom with or unlearned, arganized, involun- tary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli.

a. sensory capabiJities b. acute hearing c. narrowvision d. reflexes An infant leaming through leams to respond in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response.

reward classical conditioning operant conditioning social learning

7.

a.

b. c.

d.

Applying Lifespan Development Can you think of examples of the use of classical conditioning on adults in everyday life, in such areas as entertainmen! advertising, or politics?

Summary 2 Putting It All Together The Start of Life DAWN AND LYLE, the parents we met in the chap- ter opener, looked forward to the birth of their twins. They speculated-just as lifespan developmentalists do- about the role of genetics in their children’s development. They planned to create a loving and safe environment, with both parents involved in childcare, a comfortable

nursery/ and a safe outdoor play space. For the birth itself, they had many options available. Dawn and Lyte chose to use a midwife rather than an obstetrician and to involve Dawn’s sister in the delivery. When their babies were born, both felt pride and relief that their twins had been born healthy.

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Becoming an lnformed consumer of Development Exercising Your lnfant’s Body and Senses Recall how cultural expectations and environments affect the age at which various physical milestones, such as the first step, occur. Although most experts feel attempts to accelerate physical and sensory-perceptual development yield litfle advantage, parents should ensure that their infants receive sufficient physical and sensory stimulation. There are several specific ways to accomplish this goal:

o Carry a baby in different positions-in a backpack, in a frontpack, or in a football hold with the infant,s head in the palm of your hand and its feet lying on your arm. This lets the infant view the world from several perspectives.

r Let infants explore their environment. Don,t contain them too long in a barren environment. Let them crawl

or wander around-after first making the environment “childproof” by removing dangerous objects.

Engage in “rough-and-tumble” play. Wresfling, dancing, and rolling around on the floor-if not violent-are activities that are fun and that stimulate older infants, motor and sensory systems.

Let babies touch their food and even play with it. lnfancy is too early to start teaching table manners.

Provide toys that stimulate the senses, pafticularly toys that can stimulate more than one sense at a time. For example, brightly colored, textured toys with movable parts are enjoyable and help sharpen infants, senses.

Review, Check, and Apply Review LO 3.1 Describe how the human body develops in

the first 2 years of life, including the four principles that govern its growth.

Human babies grow rapidly in height and weight, espe- cially during the first 2years of life. Major principles that govem human growth include the cephalocaudal princi- ple, the proximodistal principle, the principle of hierarchi- cal integration, and the principle of the independence of systems.

LO 3.2 Describe how the nervous system and brain develop in the first 2 years of life, and explain how the environment affects such development.

The nervous system contains a huge number of neurons, more than will be needed as an adult. “Extra,,connections and neurons that are not used are eliminated as an infant develops. Brain development, largely predetermined genetically, also contains a strong element of plasticity-a susceptibility to environmental influences. Many aspects of development occur during sensitive periods when the organism is particularly susceptible to environmental influences.

LO 3.3 Explain the body rhythms and states that govern an infant’s behavior.

One of the primary tasks of the infant is the develop- ment of rhythms-cyclical patterns that integrate indi- vidual behaviors. An important rhythm pertains to the

infant’s state-the degree of awareness of stimulation it displays.

LO 3.4 Explain how the reflexes that infants are born with both protect them and help them adapt to their surroundings.

Reflexes are unlearned, automatic responses to stimuli that help newborns survive and protect themselves. Some reflexes also have value as the foundation for future, more conscious behaviors.

LO 3.5 Identify the milestones of gross motor and fine motor skill development in infancy.

The development of gross and fine motor skills proceeds along a generally consistent timetable in normal children, with substantial individual and cultural variations. In the Lst year, advances in gross motor skills allow children to roll ove4, sit upright without support, stand while holding onto something, andthen stand alone. Achild who grasps an object with thumb and finger at 8 months may hold a crayon adaptively at 11 months, and imitate strokes on paper by the age of 2.

LO 3.6 Summarize the role of nutrition in the physical development of infants, including the benefits of breastfeeding.

Adequate nutrition is essential for physical development. Malnutrition and undemutrition affect physical aspects of growth and may also affect IQ and school performance. Breastfeeding has distinct advantages over bottle-feeding, including the nutritional completeness of breast milk, its

provision of a degree of immunity to certain childhood diseases, and its easy digestibility. In addition, breastfeed-

t t ing offers significant physical and emotional benefits to\* both child and mother. LO 3.7 Describe the sensory capabilities of infants. Very early on, infants can see depth and motion, distinguish colors and patterns, show clear visual preferences, local- ize and discriminate sounds, and recognize the sound and

Check Yourself 1. The process which allows established neurons to

build stronger networks and reduces unnecessary neurons during the first 2 years of life is called

a. hierarchical integration b. independent plasticity c. cephalocaudal modification d, synaptic pruning

2. Behavior becomes integrated through the develop- ment of , which are repetitive, cyclical pat- terns of behaviors.

a. states b. rhythms c. REM sleep d. reflexes

lnfancy 117

smell of their mothers. Infants are also sensitive to pain and touch, the latter of which plays an important role in the child’s future development.

LO 3.8 Summarize the multimodal approach to perception.

The multimodal approach to perception considers how information that is collected by various individual sen- sory systems is integrated and coordinated.

\A/hich of the followingis not one of the consequences of malnutrition during infancy?

a. Mal:rourished children are more likely to become obese in adolescence and develop diabetes.

b. Malnourished children show a slower growth rate by the age of 6 months.

c. Malnourished children score lower on IQ tests later in life.

d. Matrourished children have a lower height and weight by age 2 than nonmalnourished children.

is the phvsical stimulation of the sense orSans.

a. Perception b. Crying c. Crawling d. SensationL

I

\

Applying Lifespan Development If you were selecting a mobile as a gift for a young infant, what features would you look for to make the mobile as interesting as possible to the baby?

Module 3.2 Cognitive Developmenf in lnfancy Making Things Happen

Nine-month-old Raisa Novak has just begun to crawl. “l’ve had to baby-proof everything,” her mother Bela says. One of the first things Raisa discovered as she began moving about the living room was the radio/CD player. At first, she pushed all the buttons in random order. But after just 1 week, she knows the red button makes the radio come on. “She has always loved music,” Bela says. ‘She ls clearly thrilled that she can make it happen whenever she wants,” Raisa now crawls around the house looking for buttons to push, and cies when she gets to the dishwasher or the DVD player for the television because she can’t reach their buttons-yet. “l will really have my hands full when she begins to walk,” Bela says.

How much of the world do infants understand? How do they begin

to make meaning of it all? Does intellectual stimulation accelerate

lnfancy 137

(t- Cultural Dimensions ls lnfant-Directed Speech Similar Across All Cultures? Do mothers in the United States, Sweden, and Russia speak the same way to their infants?

ln some respects, they clearly do. Although the words themselves differ across languages, the way the words are spoken to infants is quite similar. According to a growing body of research, there are basic similarities across cultures in the nature of infant-directed speech (Werker el al.,2007; Fais et al., 2010; Broesch & Bryant,2015).

For example, 6 of the 10 most frequent major charac- teristics of speech directed at infants used by native speakers of English and Spanish are common to both languages: exaggerated intonation, high pitch, lengthened vowels, repetition, lower volume, and heavy stress on certain key

From an educator’s perspective: What are some implications of differences in the ways adults speak to boys and girls? How might such speech differences contribute to later dif- ferences not only in speech, but also in attitudes?

it. Furthermore, some research suggests that babies who are exposed to a great deal of infant-directed speech early in life seem to begin to use words and exhibit other forms of linguistic competence earlier (Werker et a7.,2007; Bergelson & Swingley,2012; Frank, Tenenbaum, & Fernald, 2013).

words (such as emphasizing the word “ball” in the sentence, “No, that’s a ball”) (Blount, 1982). Similarly, mothers in the United States, Sweden, and Russia all exaggerate and elongate the pronunciation of the three vowel sounds of “ee,” “ah,” and “oh” when speaking to infants in similar ways, despite differences in the languages in which the sounds are used (Kuhl et al., 1997).

Even deaf mothers use a form of infant-directed speech: When communicating with their infants, deaf mothers use sign language at a significantly slower tempo than when communicating with adults, and they frequently repeat the signs (Swanson, Leonard, & Gandour, 1992; Masataka, 1996, 1998,2000).

Review, Check, and Apply Review

LO 3.9 Summarize the fundamental features of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, and describe the sensorimotor stage.

Piaget’s theory of human development involves a succes- sion of stages tfuough which children progress from birth to adolescence. As infants move from one stage to another, the way they understand the world changes. The senso- rimotor stage has six substages. The sensorimotor stage, from birth to about 2years, involves a gradual progres- sion through simple reflexes, single coordinated activities, interest in the outside world, purposeful combinations of activities, manipulation of actions to produced desired outcomes, and s).,rnbolic thought.

LO 3.10 Summarize the arguments both in support of and critical of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

Although Piaget’s theory accurately describes cogni- tive development in the broad sense, many specifics of the theory, particularly the age at which various skills develop, has been challenged.

LO 3.11 Describe how information-processing approaches explain cognitive development in infants, and summarize the memory capabilities of infants in the first 2 years of life.

Information-processing approaches to the study of cognitive development seek to learn how individuals receive, organize, store, and retrieve information. Such approaches differ from Piaget’s by considering quanti- tative changes in children’s abilities to process informa- tion. Infants have memory capabilities from their earliest days, although the accuracy of infant memories is a mat- ter of debate.

LO 3.12 Explain how infant intelligence is measured using information-processing approaches.

Traditional measures of in-fant intelligence, such as Gesell’s developmental quotient and the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, focus on average behavior observed at particular ages in large numbers of children. Informa- tion-processing approaches to assessing intelligence rely on variations in the speed and quality with which infants process information.

138 Chapter3

LO 3.13 Outline the processes by which children learn to use language.

Prelinguistic communication involves the use of sounds, gestures, facial expressions, imitation, and other nonlinguistic means to express thoughts and states. Prelin- guistic communication prepares the infant for speech. Infants typically produce their first words between the ages of 10 and 14 months. At around 18 months, chil- dren typically begin to link words together into primitive sentences that express single thoughts. Beginning speech is characterized by the use of holophrases, telegraphic speech” underextension, and overextension.

Check Yourself 1. According to Piaget, children can move from one cog-

nitive stage to another only when a child and is exposed to relevant experiences.

is adequately nourished is born with a genetic predisposition for learning has constructed a mental sense of the world reaches an appropriate level of physical matura- tion

4. 2. Unlike Piaget’s approach to cognitive develop-

ment, which stresses the _ changes that occur in infants’ capabilities, the inJormation- processing approach to cognitive development emphasizes the _ changes. a. gross motor; fine motor b. qualitative; quantitative c. sensory; perceptual d. explicii; implicit

LO 3.14 Differentiate the major theories of language development, and describe how children influence adults’ language.

Learning theorists believe that basic learning processes account for language development, whereas nativists like Noam Chomsky and his followers argue that humans have an innate language capacity. The interactionists sug- gest that language is a consequence of both environmen- tal and innate factors. In using infant-directed speech, adults shift their use of language to a higher pitch and a style of speech using, short, simple sentences.

Like other 2-year-olds, Mason can say “Doggie bye, bye” and “Milk gone.” These two-word pfuases are examples of _ speech. a. holophrastic b. telegraphic c. interpretive d. active One theory, the

–

approactr, suggests that a genetically determined, innate mechanism directs lan- guage development.

a. nativist b. universal c. learning theory d. evolutionary

a.

b. c.

d.

Applying Lifespan Development What are some ways in which children’s linguistic development reflects their acquisition of new ways of interpreting and dealing with their world?

M*dxl* 3″3 Social and Personalit t Developmenf in lnfancy Emotional Rollercoaster

Chantelle Evans has always been a happy baby. That’s why her mother Michelle was so surprised to find her l)-month- old daughter in tears when she returned to pick her up from a neighbor after having lunch with friends. “Chantelle knows Janine,” Michelle says. ‘She sees her regularly out in the yard. I don’t understand why she lvas so unhappy. I was only away for 2 hours.” Janine told Michelle she had tried everything-rocking Chantelle, singing to her-but nothing helped. lt wasn’t untit Chantelle, red-faced, tears streaming, saw her mother again that the baby smiled.

Michelle Evans will someday be able to have lunch with friends without worrying that her daughter is miserable, but Chantelle,s reaction is perfectly normal for a 1O-month-old baby. ln this Beginning at bir*r, boys and girls are dressed differently.

154 ChapterS

Do the people providing the care seem to like what they are doing? What is their motivation? ls child care just a temporary job, or is it a career? Are they experienced? Do they seem happy in the job, or is offering child care just a way to earn money?

What do the caregivers do during the day? Do they spend their time playing with, listening and talking to, and paying attention to the children? Do they seem genuinely interested in the children? ls there a television constantly on?

Are the children safe and clean? Does the environment allow infants to move around safely? ls the equipment and furniture in good repair? Do the providers adhere to the highest levels of cleanliness? After changing a baby,s diaper, do providers wash their hands?

o What training do the providers have in caring for children? Do they demonstrate a knowledge of the basics of infant development and an understanding of how normal chil- dren develop? Do they seem alert to signs that develop- ment may depart from normal patterns?

o Finally, is the environment happy and cheerful? Child care is not just a babysitting service: For the time an infant is there, it is the child’s whole world. you should feel fully comfortable and confident that the child-care center is a place where your infant will be treated as an individual.

ln addition to following these guidelines, contact the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEyC), from which you can get the name of a resource and referral agency in your area. Go to the NAEYC Web site at www.naeyc.org or call (800) 424-2460.

Review, Check, and Apply Review

LO 3.15 Discuss how children express and experience emotions in the first 2 years of life, and sum- marize the development of social referencing.

Infants display a variety of facial expressions, which are similar across culfures and appear to reflect basic emo- tional states. Early in life, inJants develop the capability of nonverbal decoding; determining the emotional states of others based on their facial and vocal expressions. Through social referencing, infants from the age of g or 9 months use the expressions of others to clarify ambiguous situations and learn appropriate reactions to them.

LO 3.16 Describe the sense of self that children pos- sess in the first 2years of life, including the development of a theory of mind.

Infants begin to develop self-awareness at about the age of 12 months. They also begin to develop a theory of mind at this time: knowledge and beliefs about how they and others think.

LO 3.17 Explain attachment in infancy, how it affects a person’s fufure social competence, and the roles that caregivers play in infants, social development.

Attachment, a strong, positive emotional bond that forms between an infant and one or more significant people, is a crucial factor in enabling individuals to develop social relationships. Infants display one of four major attachment patterns: securely attached, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized-disoriented. Research suggests an association between an infant,s attachment pattern and his or her social and emotional competence as an adult. Mothers’ interactions with their babies are particularly important for social development. Moth- ers who respond effectively to their babies, social

overtures appear to contribute to the babies, ability to become securely attached. Through a process of recip- rocal socialization, infants and caregivers interact and affect one another’s behavior, which strengthens their mutual relationship.

LO 3.18 Discuss the development of peer relation- ships in infancy.

From an early age, infants engage in rudimentary forms of social interaction with other children, and their level of sociability rises as they age.

LO 3.19 Describe individual differences that distinguish an infant,s personalit5r and the roles that temperament and gender play.

The origins of personality, the sum total of the enduring characteristics that differentiate one individual from another, arise during infancy. Temperament encom- passes enduring levels of arousal and emotionality that are characteristic of an individual. Temperamental dif- ferences underlie the broad classification of infants into easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm categories. As infants age, gender differences become more pronounced, mostly as a result of environmental influences. Dif- ferences are accentuated by parental expectations and behavior.

LO 3.20 Describe 21st-century families and their con- sequences for children, including the impact of nonparental child care on infants.

The varieties of families, ranging from tradi- tional two-parent to blended to same-sex couples, mirrorsthecomplexityofmodern-daysociety.Childcare, \ a societal response to the changing nature of the family, can be beneficial to the social development of children, fostering socialinteractionand cooperation, if itis of high quality.

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The Preschool Years 167

movements such as using a fork and spoon, cutting with scis- sors, tying shoelaces, and playing the piano.

The skills involved in fine motor movements require practice. The emergence of fine motor skills shows clear developmental patterns. At age 3, children can draw a circle and square with a crayon, and they can undo their clothes when they go to the bathroom. They can put a simple jigsaw puzzle together, and they can fit blocks of different shapes into matching holes. However, they do not show much precision and polish in these tasks, often, for example, forcing puzzle pieces into place.

By age 4, their fine motor skills are better. They can draw a person that looks like a person, and they can fold paper into tri- angular designs. And by the time they are 5, they can hold and manipulate a thin pencil properly.

How do preschoolers decide which hand to hold the pen- cil in as they work on their fine motor skills? For many, their choice was made soon after birth.

Beginning in early infancy, many children show signs of a preference for the use of one hand over the other-the development of handedness. By 7 months, handedness some infants seem to favor one hand by grabbing more with it (Segalowitz & thepreferenceofusingonehand Rapin, 2003; Marschik et a1., 2008; Morange-Majoux, Lemoine, & Dellatolas ,207g). over another Most children display a clear tendency by the end of the preschool years. Some 90 percent are right-handed and 10 percent are left-handed, and more boys than girls are left-handed.

Review, Check, and Apply Review

LO 4.1 Describe the state of children’s bodies during the preschool years.

The preschool period is marked by steady physical growth and rapid advances in physical ability. Preschoolers tend to eat less than they did as babies, but generally regr+late their food intake appropriately, given nutritious options and the freedom to develop their own choices and controls.

LO 4.2 Describe the state of children’s overall health during the preschool years.

The preschool period is generally the healthiest time of life, with only minor illnesses threatening children. Acci- dents and environmental hazards are the greatest threats.

LO 4.3 Explain how children’s brains change and develop during the preschool years.

In addition to physical growth, the preschool period is marked by rapid brain growth. The increase in myelin in the brain is particularly important for intellectual development. Among other changes, the brain devel- ops lateralization, a tendency of the two hemispheres to adopt specialized tasks.

LO 4.4 Explain the relationship between brain growth and cognitive development.

There are periods during childhood when the brain shows unusual growth spurts, and these periods are linked to advances in cognitive abilities.

LO 4.5 Describe the process of gross motor development in preschool-age children.

Cross motor developments advance rapidly during the preschool years. Boys’ and girls’ gross motor skills begin to diverge, with boys typically doing better at tasks requiring strength and girls doing better at tasks requiring coordination. To be toilet trained effectively, children must be ready both physically and emotion- ally. Although some children show signs of readiness between 18 and 24 months, some are not ready until 30 months or older.

LO 4.6 Describe the process of fine motor development in preschool-age children.

Fine motor skills, which develop concurrently with gross motor skills, involve delicate, small body movements. Fine motor skills require considerable practice to develop. Preschoolers are also developing handedness-a decided preference for one hand over the other.

Watch YH* &mswr*G *&”i$&-&

I

The Preschool Years 183

(

Review, Check, and APPIY Review

LO 4.7 Analyze Piaget’s explanation of cognitive development during the preschool years.

According to Piaget, children in the preoperational stage develop symbolic function, a change in their think- ing that is the foundation of further cognitive advances. Preoperational children are hampered by a tendency toward e gocentric thought.

LO 4.8 Evaluate how Piaget’s approach stands up to the test of time.

Recent developmentalists, although acknowledging Pia- get’s gifts and contributions, take issue with his underesti- mation of preschoolers’ capabilities.

LO 4.9 Analyze information-processing approaches to cognitive development in the preschool years.

A dilferent approach to cognitive development is taken by proponents of information-processing theories, who focus on preschoolers’ storage and recall of in-formation and on quantitative changes in information-processing abilities (such as attention). Children’s memories are susceptible to the suggestions of adults asking them questions. This is particularly true of preschoolers, who are consider- ably more vulnerable to suggestion than either adults or school-age children. With age and practice, preschoolers process information more efficiently and with greater sophistication, and they are able to handle increasingly complex problems.

Check Yourself 1. Although chjldren in Piaget’s preoperational stage

begin to use symbolic thinking, they are not capable of , or organized, logical mental processes that characterize schoolchildren.

a. operations b. transcendence c. egocentric thought d. social interaction

According to the information-processing approach, memories of particular events occurring in one’s orun Life are known as

a. personal memory b. explicit memory c. autobiographical memory d. cultural memory

LO 4.10 Describe Vygotsky’s view of cognitive development in the preschool years.

Lev Vygotsky proposed that the nature and progress of children’s cognitive development are dependent on the children’s social and cultural context. Vygotsky devel- oped two theoretical frameworks that have proven to have practical value in education: the zone of proximal development and scaffolding’

LO 4.1 I Explain how children’s language develops in the preschool years.

Children rapidly progress from two-word utterances to longer, more sophisticated expressions that reflect their growing vocabularies and emerging grasp of grarnrnar.

LO 4.12 Describe the effects of informal and formal learning resources on preschoolers.

The effects of television are mixed. Preschoolers’ sustained exposure to emotions and situations that are not representative of the real world have raised concerns. On the other hand, preschoolers can derive meaning from such targeted programs as Sesame Street, which are designed to bring about cognitive gains. Early childhood educational programs, offered as center-based or school-based child care or as preschool, can lead to cognitive and social advances. The United States lacks a coordinated national policy on preschool ed ucation.

3. Preschoolers are able to learn the meaning of words after only a brief encounter. This is known as

f

a. grammar b. fast mapping c. syntax d. social speech

4. Montessori preschools are designed an environment that Promotes development.

a. social and culfural b. cognitive and memory c. artistic and creative d. sensory, motor, and language

to create

Applying Lifespan Development In your view, how do thought and language interact in preschoolers’ development? Is it possible to think without lan-

guage? How do children who have been deaf from birth think?

2O4 Chapier{

Review, Check, and Apply Review LO 4.13 Explain how preschool-age children develop a

concept of themselves.

According to Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, preschool-age children move from the autonomy-versus- shame-and-doubt stage (18 months to 3 years) to the ini- tiative-versus-guilt stage (ages 3 to 6). Preschoolers’self- concepts are formed partly from their own perceptions and estimations of their characteristics, partly from their parents’behavior toward them, and partly from cultural influences.

LO 4.1 4 Analyze how preschool-age children develop a sense of gender.

Gender differences emerge early and conform to social ste- reofi:es about what is appropriate and inappropriate for each sex. The strong gender expectations held by preschool- ers are explained in different ways by different theorists. Some point to genetic factors as evidence for a biological explanation of gender expectations. Social learning theo- rists focus on environmental influences, whereas cognitive theorists propose that children form gender schemas, which are cognitive frameworks that organize information that the children gather about gender.

LO 4.15 Describe the sorts of social relationships that are typical of preschool-age children.

Play among preschoolers is an important form of social leam- ing. Children generally move from parallel play, to onlooker play, to associative play, and ultimately to cooperative play. Lr the preschool period, social relationships begin to encom- pass genuine friendships, which involve trust and endure over time.

LO 4.16 Analyze how children’s theory of mind changes during the preschool years.

Children’s theory of mind continues to develop during the preschool period, enabling them to see the world increasingly from others’ perspectives. Preschoolers begin to understand how others think and why they do the things they do, and through imaginative play, they begin to grasp the difference between reality and imagi- nation.

LO 4.17 Describe the changing nature o{ families and the diversity of parenting styles preschoolers experience.

Families change in nature and structure over the years, but a strong and positive home environment is essential

to children’s healthy development. Parental disciplinary styles differ both individually and culturally. In the United States and other Western societies, parents’ styles tend to be mostly authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved, and authoritative. The authoritative style is regarded as the most effective.

LO 4.18 Analyze the factors that contribute to child abuse and neglect, and describe personal char- acteristics that may protect children.

Child abuse, which may be either physical or psycho- logical, occurs especially in stressful home environments. Firmly held notions regarding family privacy and the use of physical punishment in childrearing contribute to the high rate of abuse in the United States. Moreover, the cycle of violence hypothesis points to the likelihood that peo- ple who were abused as children may turn into abusers as adults. Children who have been abused often survive their backgrounds by relying on the temperamental quality of resilience.

LO 4.19 Explain how preschool-age children develop a moral sense.

Piaget believed that preschool-age children are in the heteronomous morality stage of moral development, characterized by a belief in external, unchangeable rules of conduct and sure, immediate punishment for all mis- deeds. In contrast, social learning approaches to morality emphasize interactions between environment and behav- ior in moral development, in which models of behavior play an important role. Some developmentalists believe that moral behavior is rooted in a child’s development of empathy. Other emotions, including the negative emotions of anger and shame, may also promote moral behavior.

LO 4.20 Analyze theoretical perspectives on the ways in which aggression develops in preschool-age children.

Aggression, which involves intentional harm to another persorL begins to emerge in the preschool years. Some ethologists, such as Konrad Lorenz, believe that aggression is simply a biological fact of human life. Social learning theorists focus on the role of the environment, including the influence of models and social reinforcement as factors influencing aggressive behavior. The cognitive approach to aggression emphasizes the role of interpretations of the behaviors of others in determining aggressive or nonag- gressive responses.

220 Chapters

Watch JTMMY: ADHD In addition to drugs, behavior therapy is often used to treatADHD. Parents and teachers learn techniques that primarily use rewards (such as verbal praise) to improve behavior. Teachers can , increase the structure of classroom activities, among other man- agement techniques, because ADHD children find unstructured tasks difficult (Chronis, Jones, & Raggl, 2006; DuPaul & Weyandt, 2006).

Finally, because some research has shown links between ADHD and children’s diet, particularly in terms of fatty acids or food additives, dietary treatments have sometimes been pre- scribed. However, dietary treatments are usually insufficient by themselves (Cruz & Ba}na, 2006; Stevenson, 2006). (Parents and teachers can receive support from the Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder organization at www .chadd.org.)

Review, Check, and Apply Review LO 5.1 Summarize the ways in which children grow dur-

ing the school years, and discuss the factors that influence their growth.

In middle childhood, height and weight increase gradu- ally. Differences in height and weight are influenced by both genetic and social factors.

LO 5.2 Explain how nutrition affects children’s growth and functioning, and identify the risks posed by obesity.

Adequate nutrition promotes physical, sociaf and cognitive development, whereas overnutrition and a sedentary life- style may lead to obesity. Obesity affects 15 percent of U.S. children and leads to greater risk of heart disease, diabetes, and other diseases.

LO 5.3 Identify the advances in motor skills during middle childhood.

Cross motor skills continue to improve during the school years. Muscular coordination and manipulative skills advance to near-adult levels.

LO 5.4 Summarize the main health and safety concerns of school-age children.

Although middle childhood is generally a time of robust health, one study found ihat more than 90 percent of children in this age group will experience at least one serious medi- cal condition. Threats to safety include accidents, a result of increased independence and mobility, and unsupervised

Check Yourself 1. Which of the following is a long-term outcome associ-

ated with childhood obesity? a. Stunted growth b. Being overweight as an adult

access to cyberspace. One in five children and adolescents has a psychological disorder.

LO 5.5 Explain how various sensory impairments and learning disabilities may impact children,s school performance and social relationships.

Children who have special needs relating to vision, hearing, and speech may find the school environment especially chal- lenging. Those with visual impairments may struggle with close-up vision, and perception of color and depth which can impact their school performance. Auditory impairment affects both academic performance and peer interaction. Understanding abstract concepts depend on language for meaning and cannot be visually illustrated. Speech impair- ments make communication difficult and may make a child fearful of speaking. Leaming disabilities include difficul- ties in acquiring and using listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. Dyslexia, for example, makes it particularly difficult for children to learn to read, which in turn affects every area of their academic performance.

LO 5.6 ldentify the behaviors associated with ADHD, and discuss how it impacts children’s school performance.

Children withADHD have difficulty following instructions and finishing tasks. They are often fidgety and unable to sit still. They tend to talk excessively and frequently interrupt others. Attention deficit hlperactivity disorder poses atten- tion, organization, and activify problems for 3 to 5 percent of school-age children.

c. Greater risk of accidents d. Development of leaming disabilities

2. One explanation for the advances in fine motor skills during middle school involves

L Despite the stereotype that the gifted are “unsociable,” “poorly adjusted,” and

. “neurotic,” research suggests that highly intelligent people tend to be outgoing, well i adjusted, and popular (Bracken & Browry 2006; Shaunessy et a1.,2006; Cross et a1., 2008).

For instance, one landmark, long-term study of 1,500 gifted students, which began in the 1920s, found that the gifted were healthier, better coordinated, and psychologi- cally better adjusted than their less intelligent classmates. Furthermore, they received more awards and distinctions, earned more money, and made many more contribu- tions in art and literature than the average person. By the time they had reached age 40, they had collectively produced more than 90 books, 375 plays and short stories, and 2,000 articles, and they had registered more than 200 patents. Perhaps not surpris- ingly, they reported greater satisfaction with their lives than the nongifted (Terman & Oden, 1959 ; Sears, 1977 ; Shtxktn, 7992; Reis & Renzulli, 2004).

Yet being gifted and talented is no guarantee of school success. The verbal abilities that allow the expression of ideas and feelings can equally voice glib and persuasive statements that happen to be inaccurate. Furthermore, teachers some- times misinterpret the humor, novelty, and creativity of unusually gifted children and regard their intellectual fervor as disruptive or inappropriate. And peers may be unsympathetic: Some very bright children try to hide their intelligence in an effort to fit in (swiatek,2002).

Educators have devised two approaches to teaching the gifted and talented: acceleration and enrichment. Acceleration allows gifted students to move ahead at their own pace, even if this means skipping grade levels. The materials in accelera- tion programs are not always different; they may simply be provided at a faster pace than for the average student (Wells, Lohman, & Marron, 2009; Wood et al., 2010; Lee, Olszewski-Kubilius, & Thomsoru 2012).

An altemative approach is enrichment, through which students are kept at grade level but are enrolled in special programs and given individual activities to allow greater depth of study. In enrichment, the material differs not only in the timing of its presentatiory but in its sophistication as well. Thus, eruichment materials are designed to provide an intellectual challenge to the gifted student, encouraging higher-order thinking (Worrell, Szarko, & Gabelko, 200L; Rotigel, 2003).

Middle Childhood 241

acceleration special programs that allow gifted students to move ahead at their own pace, even if this means skipping to higher grade levels

enrichment an approach through which students are kept at grade level but are enrolled in special programs and given indi- vidual activities to allow greater depth of study on a given topic

(.-_

Review, Check, and Apply Review

LO 5,7 Identify and summarize the major theoretical approaches to cognitive development in middle childhood.

Piaget believed school-age children are in the concrete operational stage, whereas iaformation-processing approaches focus on quantitative improvements in mem- ory and in the sophistication of the mental programs children use. Vygotsky suggested school-age children should have the opportunity to experiment and partici- pate actively with their peers in their learning.

LO 5.8 Summarize the development of language during middle childhood, and explain the cognitive advantages bilingualism offers.

{ t As language develops, vocabulary, symtax, and pragmat-‘\- ics improve; metalinguistic awareness grows; and language is used as a self-control device. Bilingual students tend to show greater metalinguistic awareness, grasp the rules of language more explicitly, and demonstrate great cognitive sophistication.

LO 5.9 Describe the five stages of reading and compare teaching approaches.

The five stages of reading include Stage 0 (from birth to first grade) during which children may learn letter names and recognize a few familiar words. Stage 1, the first real type of reading, largely involves children completing the job of learning letter names and the sounds that go with them. In Stage2, children learn to read aloud with fluency. Reading becomes a mean to an end, a way to leam, in Stage 3. And by Stage 4, children are able to read and process in-formation that reflects multiple viewpoints. There is growing evidence that code-based approaches to teaching reading are more successful than the whole language approach.

LO 5.10 Summarize the various trends in U.S. education.

U.S. schools have returned in recent decades to a focus on the traditional academic skills. Most educators agree that schools should help minority children develop a bicul- tural identity, where children’s original cultural identi- ties are supported while also integrating them into the dominant culture. Schooling is considered a legal right in

242 Chapterl

the United States and many other countries, but millions of the world’s children do not receive even a primary education.

LO 5.11 Compare and contrast the different methods of assessing intelligence.

Measuring intelligence has traditionally been a matter of testing skills that promote academic success. Among tests used to measure intelligence are the Wechsler hrtelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition, (WISC-ry) and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Childrery Second Edi- tion (KABC-II). Recent theories of intelligence suggest there may be several distinct intelligences or several components

Check Yourself 1.. Vygotsky proposed that cognitive advances take place

when children are exposed to in-formation within their

sphere of logic zone of proximal development region of metamemory domain of control strategies

2. According to the approach to reading, read- ing should be taught by presenting the basic skills underlying reading. Examples include phonics and how letters and words are combined to make words. a. whole-language b. linguistic c. code-based d. dynamic

of intelligence that reflect different ways of processing information.

LO 5.12 Summarize the various approaches to educat- ing children with intellectual disabilities and children who are intellectually gifted in middle childhood.

By law, children with special needs must be educated in the least restrictive environment. This has led to mainstream- ing, which integrates such children into the regular educa- tion system as much as possible. The needs of gifted and talented children are sometimes addressed through accel- eration and enrichment programs.

3. According to Steinberg’s triarchic theory of intelli- gence, the three aspects of information processing are

a. contextual, referential, and crystalization b. developmental, componential, and structural c. experiential, experimental, and judgmental d. componential, experientiaf and contextual For children whose intelligence falls below the normal rtu:rge/ the recommendation from the Education for All Handicapped Children Act is that they be educated in

environment.

a. a separate but equal b. the most restrictive c. the least restrictive d. a needs-oriented

I

a.

b. c.

d.

4.

Applying Lifespan Development How do fluid and crystallized intelligence interact? Which of the two is likely to be more influenced by genetics and which by environment? \A/hy?

Module 5.3 Socia/ and Persanality Development in Middle Childhood Ask fwe different people about Dave Rudowski, and you might get five different descriptions of this 1l-year-old. “Rudowski’s awesome!’, says hls best friend, Paul. “He’s really good at math and is genius at Call of Duty.” Dave’s teacher agrees he has above-average abitities. ‘But he’s a bit laaJ,’she says. “Homework comes in late. Careless spelling errors.” The captain of the fourth-grade soccer ieam thinks Dave is sort of a nerd. “He’s not much into sports, but he’s funny, so that’s okay.” A classmate who’s in the school band with Dave says he’s really into music. “He plays the drums and when he /ets go, he,s amazing.” His mather affectionately calls him Big Brother. ,,Dave is the eldest child,’ she explains. ‘He’s so good with his little brothers and sisters, always inventing games to play with them.”

And how does Dave view himself? “l kind of like to go my own way,” he says. “My mind is always thinking up new projects or a way to do something better. I’ve got a couple of friends. I really don’t ned more.”

ln this module, we focus on social and personaliiy development during middle childhood. It is a time when children’s views of themselves change, they form new bonds with friends and family, and they become increasingly attached to social institutions outside the home.

We start our consideration of personality and social development during middle childhood by examining the changes that occur in the ways children see themselves. We discuss how they view their personal characteristics and examine the complex issue of self-esteem. Next, the module turns to relationships during middle childhood, discussing the stages of friendship and the ways gender and ethnicity affect how and with whom children interact. Finally, we explore the central societal institution in children,s lives: the family. We look at the variety of family constellations, the consequences of divorce, and self-care children. We also consider the phenomenon of group care.

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Review, Check, and Apply Review

LO 5.13 Summarize how children’s view of themselves changes in middle childhood, and explain how this shift affects their self-esteem.

According to Erikson, children at this time are in the industry-versus-inferiority stage. In middle childhood, children begin to use social comparison, and self-con- cepts are based on psychological rather than physical characteristics. Children increasingly develop their own internal standards of success and measure how well thev compare to those standards.

LO 5.14 Identify the six stages in Kohlberg,s theory of moral development, and compare and contrast them with Gilligan’s sequence of stages.

According to Kohlberg, moral development proceeds from a concern with rewards and punishments, through a focus on social conventions and rules, toward a sense of universal moral principles. Gilligan has suggested, however, that girls may follow a different progression of moral development, one based on responsibility toward individuals and com- passion rather than broad principles.

LO 5.15 Identify Damon’s stages of friendship, and explain the factors that determine popularity in middle childhood.

Children’s understanding of friendship changes from the sharing of enjoyable activities, through the consideration of personal kaits that can meet their needs, to a focus on inti- macy and loyalty. Friendships in childhood display status hierarchies. Improvements in social problem-solving and social information processing can lead to better interper- sonal skills and greater popularity.

Check Yourself 1. As children develop a better sel_f-understanding in mid-

dle childhood, they begin to view themselves less in terms of physical attributes and more in terms of their

a. familial relationships b. psychological traits c. environmentalcharacteristics d. motor skills

2. According to , people pass through a series of six stages as their sense of justice and their level of rea- soning evolves with age and cognitive development. a. Freud b. Piaget c. Kohlberg d. Skinner

1.

LO 5.16 Explain how gender and race affect friendships \- at this age.

Boys and girls engage increasingly in same-sex friendships, with boys’ friendships involving group relationships and girls’ friendships characterized by pairings of girls with equal status. As children age there is a decline in the num- ber and depth of friendships outside their own racial group.

LO 5.17 Identify the variety of family constellations, and assess their impact on children.

Children may grow up in traditional two-parent, mom- and-dad families, but many children today are part of single-parent families, multigenerational families, blended families, and gay and lesbian-parented families. The impact on children’s well-being in such nontraditional families depends on the economic status of the household, socie{r,s acceptance, and the absence or presence of tension in the adult(s).

LO 5.18 Describe the challenges to family life posed by work, divorce, and poverty.

In two parent or single-parent households where all the adults work full-time, many children spend time alone after schoof without adult supervision. These self-care children may experience loneliness at times but many also develop independence and enhanced self-esteem from their expe- \_ rience. How divorce affects children depends on such fac- tors as financial circumstances and the comparative levels of tension in the family before and after the divorce. pov- erty increases the disruptions in a child,s life, and parents are often too consumed with the basics of survival to devote much time to their children other needs. Childrenof poverty are at risk for poorer academic performance and higher rates of aggression.

3. _ is the evaluation of the role or person by other relevant members of the group and is usually discussed in reference to children and their peer groups. a. Dominance hierarchy b. Social competence c. Friendship d. Status

4. A child’s response to divorce many include schizophrenia, violent outbursts, and academic failure increased anxiety, sleep disturbances, and depres- sion phobias, schizophrenia, and gender confusion ‘ \ l violent outbursts, depression, and self-mutilation \– l

a.

b.

c.

d.

Adolescence 281

Table 6-1 Sater Sex Practices The only foolproof method of avoiding a sexually transmitted infection (STl) is abstinence- However, by following the “safer sex” practices listed, one can significantly reduce the risk of contracting an STI:

. Know your sexual partner-well. Before having sex with someone, learn about his or her sexual history.

. Use condoms. For those ln sexual relationships, condoms are the most reliable means of preventing transmission of STls. ln addition, dental dams (also called vaginal dams) can provide a precautionary bar- rier during oral sex.

. Avoid the exchange of bodily fluids, particularly semen. ln particular, avoid anal intercourse. The AIDS virus in particular can spread through small tears in the rectum, making anal intercourse without condoms particularly dangerous. Oral sex, once thought relatively safe, is now viewed as potentially dangerous for contracting the AIDS virus,

. Stay sober. Using alcohol and drugs impairs judgment and can lead to poor decisions-and it makes using a condom correctly more difficult.

. Consider the benefits of monogamy. People in longterm, monogamous relationships with partners who have been faithful are at a lower risk of contracting STls.

improved greatly in recent years and AIDS is no longer the sure death sentence that it used to be. Although it began as a problem that primarily affected homosexuals, it has spread to other populations, including heterosexuals and intravenous drug users. Minorities have been particularly hard hit: African Americans and Hispanics account for 70 percent of new AIDS cases, and African American males have almost eight times the prevalence of AIDS as Caucasian males. Already, more than 25 million people have died from AIDS worldwide, and people living with the disease number 34 million worldwide.

Frorn a healthcare provider’s perspective: Why do adolescents’ increased cognitive abilities, including the ability to reason and to think experimentally, fail to deter them from drug and alcohol abuse, tobacco use, and STls? How might you use these abilities to design a program to prevent these problems?

Short of abstinence, there is no certain way to avoid STIs. However, there are ways to make sex safer; these are listed in Table 6-1.

Even with substantial sex education, the use of safer sex practices is far from universal. Teenagers believe their chances of contracting STIs are minimal. This is particularly true when they view their partner as “safe”-someone they know well and with whom they have had a relatively long-term relationship (Tinsley, Lees, & Sumartojo, 2004; Widman et al., 2014).

Unfortunately, unless one knows a partner’s complete sexual history and STI status, unprotected sex remains a risk. And that information is difficult to get. Not only is it embarrassing to ask, partners may not be accurate reporters, whether from ignorance of their own exposure, embarrassment, forgetfulness, or a sense of privacy. As a result, STIs remain a significant problem.

Heview, Check, and Apply Review LO 6.1 Describe the physical changes that adolescents

experience.

Adolescence is a period of rapid physical growth, includ- ing the changes puberty brings. Adolescents’ responses to puberty range widely-from confusion to increased self-esteem. Both boys and girls face positive as well as negative consequences regarding early and late maturation.

LO 6.2 Analyze the nutritional needs and concerns of adolescents.

Adequate nutrition is essential to fuel adolescents’ physi- cal growth. Changing physical needs and environmental pressures can cause obesity or eating disorders.

LCI 6.3 Explain the relationship between brain develop- ment and cognitive growth in adolescents.

Changes in the brain during adolescence, including the ongoing development of the prefrontal cortex, bring

282 Chapter6

significant advances in cognitive abilities. For all its growth, though, the adolescent brain is not yet fully mature, leading to the conclusion that people younger than age 18 should not be subject to the death penalty.

LO 6.4 Describe major threats to adolescents from substance use and abuse.

The use of illegal drugs and alcohol is prevalent among adolescents as a way to find pleasure, avoid pressure, or gain the approval of peers. Some drugs popular among adolescents are addictive, producing either a physical or a psychological dependence. Binge drink- ing is a problem for drinkers and those around them,

Check Yourself 1. IA/hich of the following is an example of a primary sex

characteristic?

a. Growth of pubic hair b. Development of breasts c. Changes in the uterus d. Sudden increase in height

causing brain damage in the drinker and irresponsi- ble or dangerous behavior toward others.The nega- tive health effects of tobacco use are well-established. Despite this, adolescents often smoke to enhance their images or emulate adults.

LO 6,5 Deseribe the dangers that adolescent sexual practices can present.

One out of four adolescents contracts an STI before graduating from high school. AIDS is the most serious of the STIs. Safe sex practices or abstinence can prevent AIDS, but adolescents often ignore these strategies.

Adolescents may with the stresses

grow to depend on drugs to cope they encounter every day. This is

The most cofiunon nutritional concem in adolescence IS

a. anorexla neryosa b. sleep deprivation c. bulimia nervosa d. obesity

Applying Lifespan Development How might adolescents’concems about self-image contribute to smoking and alcohol use?

known as

a. binge drinking b. biological dependence c. compensatory drug use d. psychological dependence

4. _is the most common sexually transmitted infection.

a. Syphilis b. Human papilloma virus (HPV) c. Chlamydia d. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)

Module 6.2 Cognitive Develapment in Adolescence She grew up to be a lawyer, district attorney, and ultimatety a Justice of the Supreme Court, but Sonia Sotomayor did not start life at the top. Born in New York City to Puerto Rican par- ents, her father died when she was 9. Although raised in poverty, she excelled academically and graduated from Princeton University and Yale Law School. After a distinguished legal career, she was appointed to the Supreme Court, the first Hispanic justice.

The extraordinary success of Sonia Sotomayor is but one example of the impressive intellectual growth that occurs during adolescence. ln fact, by the end of this stage, adolescents match adults in cognitive abilities in major respects.

ln this module, we examine adolescents’ cognitive development. The module begins with a look at several theories. We first consider the Piagetian approach, discussing how adolescents use formal operations to solve problems. We then look at a different viewpoint: the increasingly influential information-processing perspectives. We consider the growth of metacognitive abilities, through whlch adolescents gain awareness of their own thinking

292 Chapter6

To obtain the fulI benefits of the Web, then, students must obtain the ability to search, choose, and integrate information in order to create new knowledge (Trotter, 2004; Guilamo-Ramos et al., 2015).

Despite the substantial benefits of the Web, its use also has a downside. The Web makes material available that many parents and other adults find highly objection- able. In addition, there is a growing problem of Intemet gambling. High school and college students can easily bet on sports events and participate in games such as poker on the Web using credit cards (Winters, Stinchfield, & Botzet, 2005; Fleming et a1.,2006; Mitchell, Wolak, & Finkelhor, 2007; King, Delfabbro, & Griffiths, 2010; Derevensky, Shek, & Merrick, 2010).

The growing use of computers also presents a challenge involving socioeconomic status, race, and ethnicity. Poorer adolescents and members of minority groups have less access to computers than more affluent adolescents and members of socially advantaged groups-a phenomenon known as the digital diaide (Fettermao 2005; Olsen, 2009; Broadbent & Papadopoulos, 2013; Gonzales, 2016).

Review, Check, and Apply Review

LO 6.6 Analyze Piaget’s account of adolescent cognitive development.

Adolescence corresponds to Piaget’s formal operations period, a stage characterized by abstract reasoning and an experimental approach to problems. Because of their ability to reason abstracfly, adolescents begin to question authority and often become argumentative.

LO 6.7 Explain the informatio-processing view of ado- lescent cognitive development.

According to the information-processing perspective, cog- nitive advances in adolescence are quantitative and gradual because many aspects of thinking and memory improve. Growth in metacognition enables the monitoring of thought processes and mental capacities. Adolescents are suscepti- ble to egocentrism and the perception that their behavior is constantly observed by an imaginary audience. They are likely to construct personal fables about their uniqueness and immunitytoharm.

LO 6.8 Describe major factors that affect adolescent school performance.

Academic performance is linked in complex ways to socio- economic stafus, race, and ethniciry Poorer performance by

Check Yourself 1. Fifteen-year-old Wyatt is able to solve the physics

problem from class in abstract rather than in concrete terms. According to Piaget, Wyatt is now capable of

a. preoperational thought b. formal operational thought c. egocentrism d. sensorimotor thought

some groups of students is linked to lower socioeconomic status, which often leads to a lack of resources essential to leaming. Both gender and ethnicity affect the incidence of dropping out, which is at a surprisingly high level in the United States. Mandatory achievement testing in schools has been criticized because it leads some teachers to “teach to the test.”

LO 6.9 Explain the nature and consequences of the regu- lar use of media by adolescents.

Adolescents spend a large amount of time using media. There are both benefits and risks in this phenomenon. Benefits include increased access to information and cul- ture; risks include access to inappropriate and harmful materials and behaviors. A key problem with the grow- ing importance of media in the schools is the inequality of access to computers and the Internet. Poorer adolescents and members of minority groups usually have less access than more affluent adolescents and members of more advantaged groups.

is the knowledge that people have about their own thinking processes and their ability to moni- tor their cognition.

a. Metacognition \ b. Postformal thinking c. Egocentrism d. Sensorimotor thought

(_

of 15- to 19-year-old boys reported having received oral sex, an increase of 44 percent since the late 1980s. It is possible that oral sex, which many teenagers do not even consider “sex,” may increasingly be viewed as an altemative to sexual intercourse (Bernstein, 2004).

One thing that apparently hasn’t led to a reduction in teenage pregnancies is asking adolescents to take a virginity pledge. These public pledges-a center- piece of some forms of sex education-apparently are ineffective. Lr one study of 12,000 teenagers who had taken the pledge, 88 percent reported eventually having sexual intercourse. Howevel, pledges did delay the start of sex an aver- age of 18 months (Bearman & Bruckner,2004).

An unintended pregnancy can be devastating to mother and child. Teenage mothers today are much less Iikely than in previous years to be married. In many cases, mothers care for their children without the help of the father. Lacking financial and emotional support, the mother may have to abandon her own education and be relegated to unskilled, poorly Paying jobs for the rest of her lile. In some cases, she may develop long-term dependency on welfare. Furthermore, her physical and mental health may suffer as she faces unre- lenting stress from the continual demands on her time (Manlove et a1., 2004; Gillmore eta1.,2006; Oxford et a1.,2006).

Adolescence 315

This 16-year-old mother and her child are representative of a major social problem: teen-

age pregnancy. \Atrhy is teenage pregnancy a greater problem in the United States than in other countries?

t

Review, Check, and Apply Review LO 6.10 Describe how adolescents develop their self-

concept and self-esteem.

Self-concept grows more differentiated as the view of the self becomes more organized, broader, and more abstract, and takes account of the views of others. During this period, adolescents develop both their self-concept and their self-esteem. Both gender and socioeconomic status affect the assessment of self-esteem.

LO 6.11 Analyze diverse theoretical approaches to un- derstanding identity formation.

Both Erikson’s identity-versus-identity-confusion stage and Marcia’s four identity statuses focus on the ado- lescent’s struggle to determine an identity and a role in society. Spirituality plays a role in many adolescents’ identity definition, as do race and ethnicity.

LO 6,12 Explain why depression and suicide are important issues in adolescence.

Some adoloescents question their identity and self-worth, which can lead to feelings of confusion and depression. Depression affects girls more than boys. Although rea- sons for increased suicide rates among adolescents are unclear, depression has been found to be one risk factor.

LO 6.13 Analyze how the parent-child relationship changes during adolescence.

The search for autonomy may change relations between teenagers and their parents, temporarily creating conflict in some cases, but the generation gaP is narrower than is generally thought.

LO 6.14 Analyze the nature and importance of peer rela- tionships during adolescence.

Peers, by providing social comparison and reference groups, enable adolescents to gauge appropriate behav- ior and attitudes. Cliques and crowds are particularly important in this regard. Adolescents generally sort themselves into degrees of popularity, including popu- lar, controversial, rejected, and neglected adolescents. Racial separation increases in adolescence, bolstered by differences in socioeconomic status, academic experi- ences, and attitudes. Sex cleavage eventually dissolves as most teenagers join mixed gender cliques. Peer groups can create pressure among adolescents to conform views and actions to those of others. Some adolescents may engage in criminal activity.

LO 6.15 Describe the functions and characteristics of dating during adolescence.

Dating in adolescence serves a number of functions, including intimacy, entertainment, and prestige. For homosexual adolescents, dating presents particular chal- lenges as dating practices clash with stereotypical views of relationships.

LO 6.16 Explain how sexuality develops in the adoles- cent years.

Sexual intercourse is a major milestone that most people reach during adolescence. The age of first intercourse reflects cultural differences and has been declining over the last 50 years. Sexual orientation, which is most accurately viewed as a continuum rather than categori- caIIy, develops as the result of a complex combination of factors.

330 ChapterT

Review, Check, and Apply Review

LO 7.1 Describe the physical changes that occur in early adulthood, and identify the barriers people with physical disabilities face.

By young adulthood, the body and the senses are at their peak, but growth still proceeds, particularly in the brain. People with physical disabilities face not only physical bar- riers but also psychological barriers caused by prejudice.

LO 7.2 Summarize the impact of fitness and diet on general health in early adulthood, and identify other health hazards for this age group.

Exercise and diet become important in young adulthood, but small time commitments to exercise and improved nutri- tion yield significant health benefits. Obesity is increasingly a problem for this age group. Accidents present the great- est risk of death. In the United States, violence is also a sig- nificant risk during young adulthood, particularly for non- white males.

Check Yourself 1.

–

is the natural physical decline brought about by aging.

a. Mafuration b. Plasticity c. Senescence d. Lateralization

2. At the age of

-,

illress and disease over- take accidents as the leading cause of death.

a.

b. c.

d.

3. Researchers in the field of _ study the rela- tionship among the brain, the immune system, and

25

35

40 45

LO 7.3 Identify the origins of stress, and explain its consequences.

Our appraisal of the level of stress caused by an event or situ- ation varies by individual temperament and circumstances. Origins of stress include: events that produce negative emo- tions; unexpected or uncontrollable situations; ambiguous or confusing eventsi and having to accomplish too many tasks simultaneously. Stress, which is healthy in small doses, can be harmful to the body and mind if it is frequent or long last- ing. Long-term exposure to stressors may cause deterioration in the heart, blood vessels, and other body tissues. Stress is linked to many conunon ailments.

LO 7.4 ldentify strategies for coping with stress. Strategies for coping with stress include problem- focused coping, emotion-focused coping, and the use of social support. Using the relaxation technique can also be helpful. Another strategy, defensive coping, which relies on avoidance, can prevent a person from dealing with the reality of the situation.

psychological factors, and have found that stress can produce several outcomes.

a. psychoanalysis b. chronic disease management c. resilience analysis d. psychoneuroimmunology

4. Avoiding thinking about a stressful situafion by drinking, doing drugs, or just denying the true nature of a situation are all examples of coping.

a. defensive b. problem-focused c. secondary d. somatic

Applying Lif espan Development In what circumstances can stress be an adaptive, helpful response? In what circumstances is it maladaptive?

Module 7.2 Cagnitive Dere/opnrenf in Early Adulthood Paul Galesko was an ‘A-list” student in high school-popular, a member af the drama society and the marching band, and at the top of his class. Paul had been a driven student srnce hls first year, challenging himself each semester with a strict diet of advanced and honors classes. Paul’s parents had instilled in him the value of education as a way to a better life; their lives had been difficult because they lacked a college education and had decided to have

ehildren while they were still young and not yet financially estab- lished.

Paul was excited when he got into his flrst-choice college, but things didn’t go as he expected that fhst year. Actually, he hadn’t.._ known what to expect at all. Because no one in his family had gone to college, he was exploing new territory. He tried to do it all-tough c/asses, weekend parties, a job at the student union, witing for the

340 ChapterT

Figure 7-8 Cottege Probtems The difficulties most frequently reported by college students visiting a campus counseling center.

SoURCE: Benton et al,, 2003.

Stress Anxiety

Situational

Relationship

Family lssues

Developm€ntal

Depression

Academic Skills

Medication Use

Educational/Vocational

Physical Problems

Abuse

Grief

Suicidal

Personality Disorders

Substance Abuse

Eating Disorder

Chronic Mental Disorder

Sexual Assault

Legal

inadequate. hr addition, they may be less well-prepared for college work (Barry et al., 2009 ; Credd & Niehorste r, 2012).

Most often, first-year adjustment reaction passes as sfudents make friends, expe- rience academic success/ and integrate themselves into campus life. In other cases, though, the problems remain and may fester, leading to more serious psychological difficulties (see the Becoming an lnformed Consumer of Deaelopmentbox).

Becoming an Informed Consumer of Development When Do College Students Need Professional Help With Their Problems? How can you tell if a student who is feeling depressed and unhappy may need professional help? Although there are no hard- and-fast rules, there are signals that indicate that professional help is wananted (Engler & Goleman, 1992). Among them:

o psychological distress that lingers and interferes with a person’s sense of well-being and ability to function

r feelings that one is unable to cope effectively with the stress

. hopeless or depressed feelings, with no apparent reason

. the inability to build close relationships r physical symptoms-such as headaches, stomach crcmps,

or skin rashes-that have no apparent underlying cause

lf some of these signals are present, it would be helpful to discuss them with a help provider, such as a counseling psychologist, clinical psychologlst, or other mental health worker. The best place to start is the campus medical center. A personal physician, neighborhood clinic, or local board of health can also provide a referral.

How prevalent are psychological problems? Surveys find that almost half of college students report having at least one significant psychological issue. Other research finds that more than 40 percent of students who visited a college counseling center reported being depressed (see Figure 7-8). Remember, though, that these figures include only the students who sought help. Consequently, they may not be representative of the entire college population (Benton et al., 2003).

Review, Check, and Apply Review LO 7.5 Identify and summarize the various approaches

to postformal thinking.

Cognitive development continues in young adulthood with the emergence of postformal thought, which goes beyond logic to encompass interpretive and subjective thinking. Labouvie-Vief suggests that young adults’ think- ing must develop to handle ambiguous situations. Perry suggests that people move from dualistic thinking to relativistic thought during early adulthood. According to Schaie, people pass through five stages in the way they use information: acquisitive, achieving, responsible, executive,

and reintegrative. Major life events contribute to cogni- tive growth by providing opportunities and incentives to rethink one’s self and one’s world.

LO 7,6 Discuss the different types of intelligence, and explain how each affects the career success of young adults.

New views of intelligence encompass the triarchic theory, practical intelligence, and emotional intelligence. People who score high on all three components of the triarchic theory of intelligence will be able to solve problems, use prior experience to cope with new situations, and adapt to the demands of the real world. People with practical

(.-

intelligence learn by observing others and modeling their behavior. Like people with emotional intelligence, they have good social radar and read people well. Cre- ativity seems to peak during early adulthood, with young adults viewing even longstanding problems as novel situations.

LO7.7 Summarize the demographic make-up of college students in the United States, and describe how that population is changing.

Rates of college enrollment differ across gendel, racial, and ethnic lines. The majority of college students are white and middle class. Although the absolute number of minority students attending college has increased, the overall proportion of the minority population entering

Check Yourself 1. The idea that problem solving in adulthood has to

consider previous experiences, logical thinking, and the relative benefits and costs to a decision is also known as

a. formal operational thought b. concrete operational thought c. postformal thought d. dualistic thinking

2. Stemberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence suggests that intelligence is made up of three maior comoonents:

a. componential, experiential, and contextual b. emotional, practical, and experiential c. practical, social, and creative d. creative, intuitive, and executive

Early Adulthood 341

college has decreased. The average age of college students is steadily increasing as more adults return to college.

LO 7.8 Discuss how gender bias and stereotypes affect the college performance of women and students of color.

The phenomena of academic disidentification and ste- reotype threat help explain the lower performance of women and African Americans in certain academic domains. First-generation college students may lack a clear understanding of the demands of college and may be less well-prepared for the work. First-year students may experience first-year adjustment reaction, charac- terized by a cluster of psychological symptoms, includ- ing loneliness, anxiety, and depression.

High school dropouts are

–

times more likely to live below the poverty line as adults who have a college education.

a.3 b.5 c. 10 d. 20

Failing to identify oneself as successful in a certain academic domain such as math and science for women and academics in general for African Americans is known as

stereotype threat academic disidentification inadequate orientation bias stereotlpe

a.

b. c.

d.

Applying Lifespan Development How would you educate college professors who behave differently toward male and female students? What factors contribute to this phenomenon? Can this situation be changed?

Module 7.3 Socra/ and Persanality Develapment in Early Adulthood

and I don’t see why it needs to.” When her sister Kate, who is married with three children, asks her if she ever longs for a home of her own and a family, Grace replies, “l find the idea of shutting

myself away in my own little home depressing, like cutting off my

limbs. I like living, loving, and working with a variety of people. So- ciety should realize that happiness comes in many shapes.”

ls Grace an example of a young woman who has difficulties with intimacy, or ls she part of a larger trend in how women and men in

their 20s are approaching the complexities of adulthood?

ln either case, early adulthood is a period that poses a variety of developmental tasks (see Table 7-3). We come to grips with the notion that we are no longer other people’s children, and we begin to

Grace Kennedy is an exuberant 26-year-old who shares an apart’ ment with three other young adults in Brooklyn, New York. When

not working at the local food co-op, Grace plays rock violin in two area bands and composes on the piano. Her apartment is often full of musicians, some of them composers like Grace, and the conversation is always lively, alternating between /he serlous

and the humorous with ease. “Music is so rich,” Grace says. “lt brings people together. lt takes them to someplace larger than themselves.”

Grace’s srb/rngs are all married, including her younger sister,

but Grace has had a string of lovers. Her current boyfriend, Jones, p/ays bass in her retro art-rock band. “Love is wonderful,” Grace says. ‘Uones and I really connect, but who knows if that will last,

Early Adulthood 361

‘t00

95

90

85

-80 9zs oo- 70

Figure 7-15 ftre Gender-Wage Gap Women’s weekly earnings as a perceniage of men’s have increased since 1979 but are still only a bit more than 79 percent and have remained steady over the past three years.

soURcE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014.

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Opportunities for women har.e improved considerably. Women are more likely to be physicians, lawyers, insurance agents, and bus drivers than in the past. However, within job categories gender differences persist. For example, female bus drivers are more apt to have part-time school bus routes, whereas men hold better-paying, full-time routes in cities. Female pharmacists are more likely to work in hospitals, and men work in higher-paying jobs in retail stores (Crawford & Unger,2004).

Women and minorities in high-status, visible professional roles often hit what has come to be called the glass ceiling. The glass ceiling is an invisible barrier in an organization that prevents individuals from being promoted beyond a certain level. It operates subtly, and often the people responsible for keeping the glass ceiling in place are uraware of how their actions perpetuate discrimination against women and minorities (Goodman, Fields, & Blum, 2003; Stockdale & Crosby, 2004; Dobele, Rundle-Thiele, & Kopani dis, 201 4).

60

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Review, Check, and Apply Review

LO 7.9 Explain how young adults respond to the need for intimacy and friendship and how liking turns to loving.

Young adults face Erikson’s intimacy-versus-isolation stage, with those who resolve this conflict being able to develop intimate relationships with others.

LO 7.1CI Differentiate the different kinds of love.

Passionate love is characterized by intense physiological arousal, intimacy, and caring, whereas companionate love is characterized by respect, admiration, and affection. Stern- berg’s triangular theory identifies three basic components (intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment), which can be combined to form different types of love through which a relationship can evolve.

LO 7.11 Identify the factors that influence young adults’choice of partner, and give examples of how these are affected by gender and culture.

Many factors go into choosing a spouse, including love and mutual attraction, which in some cultures are rated behind good health and maturity. Men tend to rate physi- cal attractiveness in a partner more highly than women do. Women give high marks to ambition and industriousness in a partner. Evolutionary theories to account for these dif- ferences have been criticized. It may be that cross-cultural gender preferences reflect similar patterns of gender ste- reotyping. In general, the values applied to relationships by heterosexual, gay, and lesbian couples are more similar than different.

362 ChapterT

LO 7.12 Summarize the sorts of relationships people enter into in early adulthood, and identify the characteristics of a successful marriage.

Although most young adults say they plan to marry, a significant number of young couples today are choosing cohabitation, and others prefer living alone without an intimate partner. Success in marriage includes partners who visibly show affection and communicate relatively little negativity, perceive themselves as an interdepend- ent couple instead of two independent individuals, share similar interests, and agree on role distribution.

LO 7.13 Identify the factors that influence a couple’s decision to have children, and summarize the impact children have on a marriage.

The most corunon reasons for having children are psycho- logical. Parents derive pleasure from helping their chil- dren grow, fulfillment from their accomplishments, and enjoyment from forging a close bond with them. The birth of a child alters almost every aspect of family Iife. Spouses find themselves in new roles, faced with increased physi- cal and psychological demands, and new financial respon- sibilities. Many marriages suffer from the strain, but mari- tal happiness remains steady or rises for couples who stay connected, coparent, and work together to solve problems.

Check Yourself 1. According to Erikson, adults spend their early adult

YCATS

a. consolidating careers b. developing their identities c. being industrious d. developing relationships with others

love is the strong affection we have 4. for those individuals with whom our lives are deeply involved.

a. Passionate b. Consummate c. Intimate d. Companionate

LO 7.14 Explain Vaillant’s stage of career consolidation, and identify the motivations people have for seeking a job other than money.

According to Vaillant, young adults reach the stage of career consolidation where they focus mainly on their careers. Peo- ple work because of both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation factors. The nature of a job, the degree of status it confers, and the variety it offers all contribute to job satisfaction. It’s also important to workers to feel their ideas and opinions are valued.

LO 7.15 Summarize Ginzberg’s career choice theory, Holland’s personality type theory, and how gender affects work choices.

Ginzberg offers a three-stage period of career development. Critics claim his theory oversimplifies ttre process of choos- ing a career and may lack applicability to young adults from lower socioeconomic levels. According to Holland, certain personality types match well with certain careers. A close match may increase job satisfaction and make it more likely that a person will remain in the job long term. Gender-role prejudice and stereotyping remain a problem in the work- place and in preparing for and selecting careers.

\A/hen asked why they want to have childrery most vounq adults cite reasons. a. personal b. psychological c. financial d. societal According to Vaillant, during young adulthood, indi- viduals become centered on their careers. This stage is known as

a. career consolidation b. life comprehension c. professional attainment d. career comprehension

Applying Lifespan Development If Vaillant’s study were performed today on womery in what ways do you think the results would be similar to or different from those of the original study?

380 ChapterS

the results. Sometimes the test reveals a mutation that has an unknown impact on disease risk. And often there are environmental and lifestyle risk factors that are just as important as genetic ones. Even when a test does show an unambiguous elevated risk as a result of genetic factors, it’s not at all a given that a safe and effective preventative strategy exists-having the option of a double mastectomy to prevent breast cancer is much more the exception than the rule (Vassy etal.,2A12; Easton et al., 2015).

Medical experts are therefore concerned about the publicity genetic testing is getting and whether it provides a full and accurate picture of what the testing can and cannot do. People are often much more easily swayed by vivid anecdotal experiences of people they know than by dry statistics. lmportant healthcare decisions may be made more on the basis of fear than any real understanding of actual risk. Surgery made sense in Jolie’s case, but even she had other options, such as preventative chemotherapy or just frequent monitoring for early signs of abnormality. Appropriate counsellng is essential to ensure that test results are interpreted realistically and options are fully understood (Riley et aI.,2012).

Then there’s the cost issue. lt’s one thing for an elite Hollywood actress to get genetic testing and subsequent preventative and restorative surgeries and follow-up care. lt can be quite another for the rest of us. Genetic testing is expensive, and insurance companies are reluctant to cover it without reason, such as a family history of the disease. Even when preventative interventions are possible, they might not be affordable-and they ceftainly come with their own risks and downsides. Many issues therefore need to be considered carefully before making the decision to seek genetic testing; Angelina Jolie’s bold decision worked out well for her, but everyone’s case is different (Riley et al., 2012; Kluger & Park, 2013).

Why might someone want to know his or her risk of developing a serlous disease if little can be done to prevent it? Would you want to know your own risk? Why or why not?

Angelina |olie underwent a double mastectomy to decrease her risk of developing breast cancer.

Review, Check, and Apply Review

LO 8.1 Describe the physical changes that affect people in middle adulthood.

People in middle adulthood experience gradual changes in physical characteristics and appearance. Weight gain can be controlled through regular exercise and a healthy diet. The acuity of the senses, particularly vision, hearing, and speed of reaction decline slightly during middle age.

LO 8.2 Analyze the changing nature of sexuality in mid- dle adulthood.

Sexuality in middle adulthood changes slightly, but cou- ples, freed from childbearing and parenting, can enjoy

a new level of intimacy and pleasure. Physical changes affecting sexuality occur in both genders. Both the female climacteric, which includes menopause, and the male cli- macteric seem to have physical and perhaps psychologi- cal symptoms.

LO 8.3 Describe the health of the average person in middle adulthood.

In general, middle adulthood is a period of good health, although susceptibility to chronic diseases, such as arthritis, diabetes, and hypertension/ increases. Stress continues to have a significant impact on health in mid- dle adulthood, causing direct physiological effects, unhealthy lifestyle choices, and indirect effects on health- related behavior.

Becoming an lnformed Consumer of Development Effective Strategies for Remembering We are all forgetful at times. However, there are techniques for more effective recall. Mnemonics (pronounced “nee-MON-iks”) are formal strategies for organizing material in ways that make it easier to remember. Among the mnemonics that work are the following (Bloom & Lamkin,2006; Morris & Fritz,2006):

o Get organized. For people who have trouble recalling where they left their keys or remembering appointments, the simplest approach is to become more organized. Using a date book, hanging keys on a hook, or using Post-lt notes can aid recall.

. Pay attention. You can improve your recall by paying close attention to new information, and purposefully thinking that you will need to recall it. For example, when you park your car at the mall, pay attention at the moment you park, and remind yourself that you really want to remember the location.

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386 Chapter 8

Use the encoding specificity phenomenon. According to the encoding specificity phenomenon, people are most likely to recall information in environments that are similar to those in which they initially learned (“encoded”) it [ulv- ing & Thompson, 1973). For instance, people are best able to recall information on a test if the test is held in the room in which they studied.

Visualize. Making mental images of ideas can help you recall them later. For example, if you want to remember that global warming may lead to rising oceans, think of yourself on a beach on a hot day, with the waves coming closer and closer to where you’re sitting.

Rehearse. Practice makes memory perfect, or if not per- fect, at least better. By practicing or rehearsing what you wish to recall, you can substantially improve your memory.

This tale puzzles most Westerners. They are unschooled in the particular Native American culture the story comes from. However, to someone familiar with that culture, the story makes perfect sense: The hero feels no pain because his companions are ghosts, and the “black thing” coming from his mouth is his departing soul.

For a Native Americar, it may be easy to recall the story, because it makes sense in a way that it doesn’t to members of other cultures. Material that fits into existing schemas is easier to recall than material that doesn’t fit. For example, a person who usually puts her keys in her purse may lose them because she doesn’t recall putting them on the counter. It’s not the “usual place” (Tse & Altarriba, 2007; also see Becoming an Informed Consumer of D ea elopment).

Review, Check, and Apply Review

LO 8.5 Analyze changes in the nature and use of intel- ligence in middle adulthood.

The question of whether intelligence declines in middle adulthood is complicated by limitations in cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies. Intelligence appears to be divided into components, some of which decline, whereas others hold steady or even improve. In general, cognitive competence in middle adulthood holds fairly steady despite declines in some areas of intellectual func- tioning. Many people develop strategies to optimize their intellectual performance as they age, often concen- trating on particular skill areas to make up for declines in other areas, a process called selectiae optimization with compensation Expertise-the skill or knowledge acquired

in a particular area-develops as people devote attention and practice to a subject or skill and, in so doing, gain experience.

LO 8.6 Describe how aging affects memory and how memory can be improved.

Memory may appear to decline in middle age, but, in fact, long-term memory deficits are probably as a result of ineffective strategies of storage and retrieval. People categorize and interpret new information according to the schemas they have developed about how the world is organized and operates. Mnemonics help people organ- ize material in ways that improve recall. These formal strategies include getting organized, visualizing, rehears- ing, paying attention, and using the encoding specificity phenomenon.

LO 8.4 Describe risk factors and preventive measures for heart disease and cancer in middle adulthood.

Heart disease is a risk for middle-aged adults. Both genetic

and environmental factors contribute to heart disease,

Check Yourself 1. A decline in the ability to hear high-pitched, high-

frequency sounds is known as

-.

a. glaucoma b. presbycusis c. osteoporosis d. presbyopia

2. The period of time that marks a woman’s transition from being able to bear children to not being able to do

so is known as the _-‘ a. midlife transition b. perimenopausal period c. female climacteric d. postpartum period

Middle Adulthood 381

including the Type A behavior pattern. The precise causes of cancer are still unknown, but the process by which it spreads is clear. Therapies such as radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and surgery can successfully treat cancer’

\ /hich of the following is a direct physiological conse- quence of stress in middle adulthood?

a. Drug use or abuse b. Failure to comply with medical advice c. Cutting back on sleep d. Decreased immune system response

Lrsecurity, extreme ambition, anxiety, and hostiiity put people at risk for heart attacks. This behavior is referred

to as the behavior pattem.

a. TypeA b. Jekyll and Hyde c. Type B d. hypertensive stress

Applying Lifespan DeveloPment What social policies might be developed to lower the incidence of disabling illness among members of lower-socioeconomic

groups?

Module 8.2 Cagnitive Devolapment in Middle Adulthood

Taking the Challenge

Gina Madison has always loved a challenge. That’s why she applied

ta be a contestant on the game show Jeopardyl “Why should young people have all the fun?” she asks, laughing’ I figure at age 46, I know

athing or two.” Jeopardyl requhes quickthinking and quick response

time. Was Gina wonied that despite her world experience and ac-

cumulated laowledge, she would be besfed by contestants half her

age? “Not reatly,” she says. “My husband and I do cryptic puzles every

morning at breal<fast.” Gina also reads a great deal. “l make notes while I

read and review them at the end of a book,” she explains. She aiso /oves

nonfiction-books about science, history, and world events. “Books

about brain research are my favorites,” she says. “They’re discovering

that you really can teach an ‘old dog’ new ticks”‘

Gina, like many people in midlife, enjoys challenging her mind and

keeping it sharp. She feels confldent to take on people half her age in a contest of wits and quick response time. She knows she

has something that younger contestants do not: decades of life experience and knowledge.

The second module of the chapter focuses on cognitive development in middle age. We look at the tricky question of whether intelligence declines during the period, and we consider

the difficulty of answering the question fully. We also examine memory and how its capabilities change in middle adulthood.

Intelligence and Memory It began innocently enough. Forty-five-year-old Bina Clingman couldn’t remember whether

she had mailed the letter that her husband had given her, and she wondered, briefly, wheth-

er this was a sign of aging. The next day, the question recurred when she spent 20 minutes

looking for a phone number she knew she had written down on a piece of paper-some-

where. By the time she found it, she was surprised and even a little anxious. ‘Am I losing my

memory?” she asked herself, feeling both annoyance and a degree of concern’

406 ChapterS

Leisure Time: Life Beyond Work Lo 8.13 Describe how people experience leisure time in middle adulthood. with the typical work week hovering between 35 and 40 hours-and becoming shorter for most people-most middle-aged adults have some 70 waking hours per week of leisure time (Kacapyr, L997). What do they do with it?

For one thing, they watch television. Middle-aged people average around 15 hours of television each week. But adults do much more with their leisure time. For many people, midlife offers a renewed opportunity to take up activities outside the home. As children leave, parents have substantial time to participate in leisure activities like sports or participate in town committees. Middle-aged adults in the United States spend about 6 hours each week socializing (Robinson & Godbey, 1997; Lindstrom et al., 2005).

A significant number of people find leisure so alluring that they take early retire- ment. For early retirees who have adequate financial resources to last the remainder of their years, Life can be quite gratifying. Early retirees tend to be in good health, an4 they may take up a variety of new activities (Clrtf , 1997;Iopp & Hertzog, 2010).

Although midlife offers the opportunity for more leisure, most people report that the pace of their lives does not seem slower. Much of their free time is scattered throughout the week in 15- and 30-minute chunks as they pursue a variety of activi- ties. Thus, despite a documented increase of 5 hours of weekly leisure time since 1965, many people feel they have no more free time than they did previously (Robinson & Godbey,1997).

, One reason why extra leisure time seems to evaporate is that the pace of life in the United states is considerably faster than in many countries. By measuring the length of time average pedestrians cover 60 fee! the time it takes to purchase a stimp, and the accuracy of public clocks, research has compared the tempo of living in a variety of countries. According to a composite of these measures, the United States has a quicker tempo than many other countries, particularly Latin American, Asian, Middle Eastem, and African countries. But, many countries outpace the United States. western European countries and Japan move more quickly than the United States, with Switzerland ranking first (Levine ,1997a,199Tb).

Review, Check, and Apply Review LO 8.7 Explain varied perspectives on personality de-

velopment during middle adulthood.

In normative-crisis models, people pass through age- related stages of development; life events models focus on how people change in response to various life events. Erikson characterizes midlife as a time spent either in generativity or stagnation. Vaillant, Gould, and Levinson offer alternatives to Erikson’s views. Levinson argues that the transition to middle age can lead to a midlife cri- sis, but there is little evidence for this in the majority of people,

LO 8.8 Analyze whether personality is stable or changes over the life span.

Broad, basic personality characteristics are relatively sta- ble. Specific aspects of personality do seem to change in response to life events. In general, people’s level of hap- piness remains relatively stable throughout life.

LO 8.9 Describe typical patterns of marriage and divorce in middle adulthood.

Marital satisfaction rises and falls over the course of mar- riage, generally following a U-shaped configuration over the years. In happy marriages, most people also feel that their spouses have growrr more interesting over the years. There are many reasons why marriages end in divorce, including lack of satisfacfion, less time spent together, and infidelity. Divorce may increase happiness, and the process of divorce is more socially acceptable.

LO 8.10 Analyze the effects and significance of changes in family patterns in middle adulthood.

Family changes in middle adulthood include the depar- ture of children. In recent years, the phenomenon of “boomerang children” has emerged. Middle-aged adults often have increasing responsibilities for their aging parents.

LO 8.11 Describe causes and characteristics of family violence in the United States.

Abuse is more likely to occur in large families who are experiencing financial strain and for whom verbal aggression is common. Adults who experienced family violence as children are also more likely to be violent themselves. Marital violence tends to pass through three stages: tension building, an acute battering incident, and loving contrition.

LO 8.12 Describe the benefits and challenges of work life in middle adulthood.

People in middle age view their jobs differently than before, placing more emphasis on specific job factors,

Check Yourself L. According to the model of personality

developmen! individuals at different ages c€m exPe- rience the same emotional and personality changes because they have shared colrunon occurrences in their Lives.

a. normative-crisis b. psychosexual c. life events d. self-understanding

2. Couples who in middle adulthood need to take care of their aging parents and their children are often referred to by psychologists as the

a. boomer b. betweener c. sandwich d. boomerang

Middle Adulthood 407

such as pay and working conditions, and less on career striving and ambition. Midlife career changes are becom- ing more prevalent, motivated usually by dissatisfaction, the need for more challenge or status, or the desire to return to the workforce after childrearing.

LO 8.13 Describe how people experience leisure time in middle adulthood.

People in midlife usually have increased leisure time. Often they use it to become more involved outside the home in recreational and community activities.

The stage of marital aggression in which the batterer expresses remorse and apologizes for the violence is known as the stage.

a. cycle ofviolence b. acute battering c. tension-building d. loving contrition Compared to younger adults, middle-aged adults who lose their iobs

a. tend to stay unemployed longer and have fewer op- portunities for gratifying work as they age

b. tend to find jobs quickly because of their skills but find it difficult to stay employed

c. find it difficult to get new jobs, but once employed have a stable work history

d. are less likely to become depressed, which facili- tates their search for new employment

generation.

Applying Lifespan Development Why might striving for occupational success be less appealing in middle age than before? What cognitive and personality changes might conkibute to this phenomenon?

Summary I Putting It All Together Middle Adulthood TERRI PONOVAN at 50, found the free time that had eluded her for several decades as she raised her family while working full-time. Chronologically and developmen- tally right in the middle of middle adulthood, she sent her youngest child to college, reignited her romance with her husband, took up volunteer work at a souP kitchen, and quit her job as an urban planner to run for the state

legislature. Though Terri was certainly in a midlife transi- tion, she did not experience a “midlife crisis.” She realized she still had half a life ahead of her if all went well, and she was determined to forge strong connections with her husband, her grandchild, the people she met at the soup kitchen, and, through her bid for the legislature, with her entire communify.

Late Adulthood 427

I

Review, Check, and Apply Review LO 9.1 Describe the myths and realities of aging.

Older people are often subject to ageism-prejudice and discrimination against people based on their age. Not all cultures view aging negatively. Elderly people are revered in Asian and Native American societies.

LO 9.2 Summarize the physical changes that occut in old age.

Old age brings many physical transitions and internal changes. Outwardly, the hair may gray and thin. Peo- ple may lose a few inches of height as the cartilage in the disks of the spine grows thinner. Internally, the respiratory and digestive systems grow less efficient. The brain shrinks and uses less oxygen, but the number of cells in the cortex may only drop minimially if at all. Reaction time slows with aging. Although their physical capabilities are likely to have changed, many older peo- ple remain agile and fit.

LO 9.3 Explain how aging affects the senses. Old age brings declines in vision, hearing, taste, and smell. The declines in the senses can have major psycho- logical consequences.

Check Yourself 1. asine involves universal and irreversible

changes that, as a result of genetic programming, occur as people get older.

a. Secondary b. Intemal c. Inactive d. Primary

2. The most common cause of blindness in people older than 60 is _. a. age-related macular degeneration b. cataracts c. interlocular lens deterioration d. glaucoma

LO 9.4 Summarize the health problems elderly people experience, and list the factors that influence the state of a person’s health.

Most illnesses and diseases of late adulthood are not pecu- liar to old age; howevel incidents of cancer and heart disease rise with age. People in late adulthood are also more prone to develop arthritis, hypertension, major neurocognitive disorder, and Alzheimer’s disease. The state of health in late adulthood is influenced by a variety of factors, includ- ing genetic predispositiory environmental factors, and psychological factors. Proper diet, exercise, and avoidance of health risks can lead to prolonged wellness during old age, and sexuality can continue throughout the life span in healthy adults.

LO 9.5 Discuss the different theories of aging and sum- marize the research to increase life expectancy.

Whether death is caused by genetic programming or by general physical wear and tear is an unresolved question. Life expectancy, which has risen for cenfuries, varies with gender, race, and ethnicity. New approaches to increasing life expectancy include telomere therapy, reducing free rad- icals through antioxidant drugs, restricting caloric intake, and replacing worn-out organs.

Alzheimer’s Disease,

-,leads

to the deaths of 100,000 people every year in the United States and af- fects nearly hal-f of all people older than age 85.

a. a degenerative cell disorder b. a cfuonic hypertension condition c. a progressive brain disorder d. a neurocognitive immune condition

theories of aeine sussest that our DNA con- tains a built-in time lirnit for reproduction of human cells.

a. Wear-and-tear b. Life expectancy c. Genetic programrdng d. Chemical exposure

3.

4.

Applying Lifespan Development In what ways is socioeconomic status related to welLness in old age and to life expectancy?

Module 9.2 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood Not in the Driver’s Seat

Gmce and Helen, both 80 years old, are idly complaining aboutthe mi- nor annoyances of old age as they take their weekly drive to the market.

Helen, in the passenger seat, watches as Grace drives right through

a red light. Knowing her eyes arm’t what they used to be, Helen says nothing. But when the same thing happens again at the nert lwo inter- secfbns, Helen knows she can’t blame her eyesight and speaks up.

Late Adulthood /t33

I

Review, Check, and Apply Review LO 9.6 Descibe the challenges of determining the

cause of age changes in intelligence.

Because of cohort effects and other challenges, it is dif- ficult to draw conclusions about the reasons for age changes in intelligence using cross-sectional and longi- tudinal studies.

LO 9.7 Summarize the effects of aging on cognitive functioning, and identify the factors which may affect it.

Although some intellectual abilities gradually decline throughout adulthood, starting at around age 25, oth- ers stay relatively steady. For example, research shows that although fluid intelligence declines with age, crys- tallized intelligence remains steady, and may even improve, in late adulthood. There is no uniform pattern of age-related intellectual changes. Factors that may

Check Yourself 1. One problem with conducting cross-sectional

research on aging and cognition is that this method does not take into consideration , the influences attributable to growing up in a particular era.

a. genetic effects b. environmental effects c. cohort effects d. religious effects

2. The relationship between environmental factors and intellectual skills suggests that with older people can maintain their mental abilities.

a. stimulation, practice, and motivation, b. exercise, a kind spouse, and a flexible personality

style c. autobiographical memory, motivation, and

prescription drugs d. increased estrogen, exercise, and a cohort group

Applying Lifespan Development How might cultural factors, such as the esteem in which a society holds its older members, work to affect an older person’s memory performance?

Module 9.3 $ocial and Per$onarW Develapmenf in Late Adulthood

Pottering About in the Sun

affect cognitive functioning include environmental and cultural factors.

LO 9.8 Explain how memory capability changes in late adulthood.

Declines in memory affect mainly episodic memo- ries and short-term memory. Explanations of memory changes in old age have focused on environmental fac- tors, information-processing declines, and biological factors.

LO 9.9 Identify the learning opportunities available to older adults, and describe their value to cogni- tive functioning.

Educational programs like Road Scholar offer learning opportunies for older adults. Many public colleges also encourage senior citizens to enroll in classes. Exercising cognitive skills may help people keep their intellectual functioning sharp in late adulthood.

3. \A/hen it comes to autobiographical memories, older individuals, like younger individuals, follow the

, in that they are more likely to remem- ber pleasant memories.

a. saliency principle b. semantic I effect c. Pollyanna principle d. positive effect

4. It is likely that the gap in technology skills between younger and older adults will decrease as _’ a. young adults get jobs, have families, and are too

busy for social media b. technology use continues to expand in the general

society c. technology creates simpler machines and special

apps for the elderly d. older adults are treated with more respect online

Simone Thomas, B 7, sefs up her asel and watercolors in the garden of

her California home. “l’ve been illustrating children’s books for 50 years,”

she says. Simone had once hoped to bxome afamous painter and after

art school moved to ltaly to pursue her dream. “l didn’t become the next

Mbhelangelo,” she says, laughing, “but my life workd out iust fine. I met my husband Gabiel over there, so how could things have gone better?”

454 Chapterg

single cause for elder abuse, it often stems from economic, psychological, and social pressures on caregivers who must provide high levels of care 24 hours a day. Thus, people with Alzheimer’s disease or other sorts of major neurocognitive disorder are particularly likely to be targets of abuse (Baker, 2007;Lee,2008; Castle & Beach, 2013).

The best way to deal with elder abuse is to prevent it. Family members caring for an older adult should take breaks and should contact social support agencies for advice and concrete support. For instance, the National Family Caregivers Association (800-896-3650) maintains a caregivers’network and publishes a newsletter.

Anyone suspecting that an elderly person is being abused should contact local authorities, such as their state’s Adult Protective Services or Elder Protective Services.

Review, Check, and Apply Review

LO 9.10 ldentify and describe the various theories of personality development in late adulthood.

Erikson calls older adulthood the ego-integrity-versus- despair stage; Peck focuses on three tasks that define the period; Levinson suggests that older people can experi- ence liberation and self-regard; and Neugarten focuses on the ways people cope with aging.

LO 9.11 Explain how age relates to the distribution of resources, power and privilege.

Age stratification theories suggest that the unequal dis- tribution of economic resources, power, and privilege is particularly pronounced during late adulthood. In general, Western societies do not hold elderly people in as high esteem as many Asian societies.

LO 9.12 Define wisdom, and describe how it is associated with age.

Wisdom reflects the accumulation of knowledge related to human behavior. Because it is gathered through experience, it appears to be correlated with age.

LO 9.13 Differentiate the theories of aging, and explain how culture shapes the way older people are treated.

Disengagement theory suggests that older people gradually withdraw from the world, whereas activity theory suggests that the happiest people continue to be engaged with the world. A compromise theory- continuity theory-may be the most useful approach to successful aging, and the most successful model for aging may be selective optimization with compensa- tion. Societies in which elderly people are respected are generally characterized by social homogeneity, extended families, responsible roles for older people, and control of significant resources by older people.

LO 9.14 Describe the living arrangements available to oldet adults, and explain how each affects the quality of their lives.

Elderly people live in a variety of settings, although most live at home with a family member. For others there are specialized living environments that range

from continuing-care communities to skilled-nursing facilities. Living with a spouse represents continuity for older adults, whereas moving in with children in a multigenerational setting can be challenging. Living in a nursing home or other institutional setting involves a loss of independence which many older adults fear.

LO 9.15 Discuss the financial security of older people and the social and economic ramifications of work and retirement in later adulthood.

Financial issues can trouble older people, largely because their incomes are fixed, healthcare costs are increasing, and the life span is lengthening. After retirement, many people pass through stages, including a honeymoon period, disenchantment, reorientation, retirement rou- tine, and termination. There are ways to plan a good retirement including tapering off from work gradually, exploring interests before retiring, and trying to plan ahead financially.

LO 9.16 Identify the issues married couples face in late adulthood, and describe the challenges presented by the death of a spouse.

Although marriages in older adulthood are generally huppy, the many changes of the period cause stresses that can bring divorce. The death of a spouse has major psychological, social, and material effects on the sur- vivor and makes the formation and continuation of friendships highly important.

LO 9.17 Identify the relationships that are important to older adults, and explain why they matter.

Friendships are highly valued in late adulthood and an important source of social support. Family relation- ships are a part of most older people’s lives, especially relationships with siblings and children. They provide both emotional support and continuity.

LO 9.18 Discuss what causes elder abuse and how it can be prevented.

Parents who are socially isolated and in poor health may be abused by children who are forced to act as car- egivers. The best defense against elder abuse is preven- tion by ensuring that caregivers receive time off and have access to social support.

Death and Dying 465

o Routine death education. Although relatively little curricular material on death exists for elementary students, coursework in high schools is becoming more common. Colleges and universities increasingly include courses about death in such departments as psychology, human development, sociology, and education (Eckerd, 2009; Bonoti, Leondari, & Mastora, 2013; Corr,201,5).

. Death education for members of the helping professions. Professionals who will deal with death, dying, and grief in their careers have a special need for death education. Almost all medical and nursing schools now offer some form of death education. The most successful programs not only offer providers ways to help patients deal with their own impending deaths or those of family members, but also allow students to explore their feelings about the topic (Haas-Thompson, A1ston, & Holbert,2008; Kehl & McCarty,2012).

Although death education will not completely demystify death, the programs just described may help people come to grips with what is, along with birth, the most universal-and certain-of all human experiences.

Review, Check, and Apply Review l-O 10.1 Describe how the moment of death

is defined.

Functional death is defined as the cessation of heartbeat and respiration; brain death is defined by the absence of elec- trical brain waves. The definition of death has changed as medical advances allow us to resuscitate people who would once have been considered dead. Some medical experts believe that death occurs when a person can no longer think, reason, or feel, and can never again live anything resembling a human life.

Check Yourself 1. The cessation of the heartbeat and breathing is the defini-

tion of

–

death.

a. functional b. biomedical c. brain d. legal

2. The concept of the personal fable, which can lead to feel- ings of invulnerability, makes death occurring during

oarticularlv surorisins and shatterins.

a. childhood b. adolescence c. young adulthood d. middle adulthood

LO 10.2 Analyze causes of and reactions to death across the life span.

The death of an infant or young child can be particularly difficult for parents, and for an adolescent death appears to be unthinkable. Cultural differences in attitudes and beliefs about death strongly influence people’s reactions to it.

LO 10.3 Describe the aims and benefits of death education. Thanatologists recommend that death education become a normal part of learning to help people understand one of the most universal, and certain, of all human experiences.

are oeoole who studv death and dving.

a. Cytologists b. Thanatologists c. Neuropathologists d. Teratologists

Emergency counseling provided within schools to help students deal with sudden events such as the 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon is known as _. a. routine death education b. thanatology training c. crisis intervention education d. demystification training

3.

4.

Applying Lifespan Development Do you think schools should teach preteens and adolescents about suicide? Are there disadvantages to teaching this age group about suicide, or is it best to deal with the topic early?

Death and Dying 473

Review, Check, and Apply Review LO 10.4 Analyze Kiibler-Ross’s theory on the process

of dying.

Elisabeth Ktibler-Ross identified five steps toward dying: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Atthough Kiibler-Ross has added to our understanding of the process of dying, the steps she identified are not universal. Recently, other theorists have developed altemative ideas.

LO 10,5 Explain ways in which people can exercise control over how they spend their last days.

Issues surrounding dying are highly controversial, includ- ing the measures that physicians should apply to keep

Check Yourself 1,. Kiibler-Ross initially suggested that people pass

through basic steps or stages as they approach death. The first stase is

a. grief b. acceptance c. anger d. denial

2. According to Ktibler-Ross, dying people who prom- ise to give their money to charity if only they can have another few months of life are in the

–

stage

of dying.

a. anSer b. depression c. denial d. bargaining

dying patients alive and who should make the decisions about those measures. Assisted suicide and, more Sener- ally, euthanasia are highly controversial and are illegal in most of the United States, although many people believe they should be legalized if they are regulated.

LO 10.6 Describe alternatives for providing end-of-life care for the terminally ill.

Although most people in the United States die in hospi- tals, increasing numbers are choosing home care or hos- pice care for their final days.

In the medical community, DNR stands for

-.

a. Do Not Renew b. Daily Notice of Revision c. Decision Not to Revive d. Do Not Resuscitate

Some people designate a specific person, called a to act as their representative for healthcare

decisions.

a. health associate b. healthcare proxy c. Iegal aide d. personal care attendant

3.

4.

Applying Lifespan Development Do you think it would be wise to suggest hospice care to a terminally ill family member who is in the bargaining stage of dying? Which of the stages identified by Kiibler-Ross would be the most appropriate for making such a suggestion?

i#**ir”;ie= t *.is Grief and Bereavernent Facing the Void

When they told me my husband Jim had died during surgery, lwent mute. All I wanted was to go into a dark room, curl up in a ball, and

sleep. Spooky, isn’t it, because what I wanted to do was a lot like

dying. But I couldn’t stand words and I couldn’t stand feeling- I didn’t want to feel anything. Because, of course, the pain was so huge, I was afraid it would break me. I went home 2 days after he died and everything hurt. The sight of his clothing, his guitar, and all the photographs. lt’s been 2 months and l’m better now, but it still hurts.

Kate 5., 78, widow.

It is a universal experience, but most of us are surprisingly ill- prepared for the grief that follows the death of a loved one. Parlicularly in Western societies, where life expectancy is long and

morlality rates are low, people view death as atypical rather than

expected, This attitude makes grief all the more difficult to bear.

ln this module, we consider bereavement and grief. We examine the difficulties in distinguishing normal from unhealthy grief

and the consequences of loss. The module also looks at mourning and funerals, discussing how people can prepare themselves for the

inevitability of death.

478 Chapterl0

Becoming an Informed Consumer of Development Helping a Child Cope With Grief Because of their limited understanding of death, younger children need special help in coping with grief. Among the strategies that can help are the following:

o Be honest. Don’t say that the person is “sleeping,’ or “on a long trip.” Use age-appropriate language to tell the truth. Gently but clearly point out that death is final and universal.

. Encourage expressions of grief. Don’t tell children not to cry or show their feelings. lnstead, tell them that it is understandable to feel terrible, and that they may always miss the deceased. Encourage them to draw a picture, write a letter, or express their feelings some other way.

Reassure children that they are not to blame. Children sometimes attribute a loved one’s death to their own behavior-if they had not misbehaved, they mistakenly reason, the person would not have died.

Understand that children’s grief may surface in unanticipated ways. Children may show litile initial grief but later may become upset for no apparent reason or revert to behaviors like thumbsucking or wanting to sleep with their parents.

Children may respond to books for young people about death. One especially effective book is l,{/hen Dinosaurs Dle by Laurie Krasny Brown and Marc Brown.

Review, Check, and Apply Review LO 10.7 Analyze the cultural meaning o{ funeral rites in

Western and other cultures.

After a death, most cultures prescribe some sort of funeral ritual to honor the passing of a community mem- ber. Funeral rites play a significant role in helping people acknowledge the death of a loved one, recognize their own mortality, and proceed with their lives.

LO 10.8 Describe how survivors react to and cope with death.

Bereavement refers to the loss of a loved one; grief refers to the emotional response to that loss. For many people, grief passes ihrough denial, sorrow, and accommoda- tion stages. Common assumptions about the nature and duration of “normal” grief have been shown to be erro- neous. The length and intensity of the mourning period vary widely.

Check Yourself L. Modern American funerals are generally grandiose and

expensive primarily because _. a. American social norms virtually mandate that a fu-

neral be complex and costly b. American survivors are usually motirrated to pro-

vide the best for their loved ones c. the typical American funeral rite involves large

numbers of mourners d. American survivors typically wish to display their

wealth and social standing 2. One of the main purposes of the funeral ritual across

cultures is to _. a. encourage survivors to look more favorably on the

prospect of dying b. cheer the dyrng person with the prospect of a grand

sendoff

c. offer survivors an opporfunity to share their grief d. enable the dying person to express final thoughts

in writing or on tape In the final stage of grief, people tend to a. pi& up the pieces of their lives and construct new

identities b. cycle back to numbness if the pain is too severe c. avoid the reality of the situation through denial d. suffer deep unhappiness and even depression Bereaved people who lack are more likely to experience loneliness and are at greater risk for nega- tive post-death outcomes.

a. ambivalence b. riti.rals c. independence d. social suppofi

3.

4.